References

• Alisic, E., Zalta, A. K., van Wesel, F., Larsen, S. E., Hafstad, G. S., Hassanpour, K., & Smid, G. E. (2014). Rates of posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed children and adolescents: Meta-analysis. The British Journal of Psychiatry : The Journal of Mental Science, 204, 335–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). The diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: APA.
   Google Scholar
• Beck, J. G., Coffey, S. F., Palyo, S. A., Gudmundsdottir, B., Miller, L. M., & Colder, C. R. (2004). Psychometric properties of the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): A replication with motor vehicle accident survivors. Psychological Assessment, 16(3), 289–298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P., & Rothstein, H. R. (2006). comprehensive meta-analysis version 3. Engelwood, NJ: Biostat, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Brewin, C., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consultulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(5), 748–766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670–686.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant, R. A., & Guthrie, R. M. (2007). Maladaptive self-appraisals before trauma exposure predict posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(5), 812–815.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryant, R. A., Salmon, K., Sinclair, E., & Davidson, P. (2007). A prospective study of appraisals in childhood posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(10), 2502–2507.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox, C. M., Kenardy, J. A., & Hendrikz, J. K. (2008). A meta-analysis of risk factors that predict psychopathology following accidental trauma. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 13(2), 98–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuijpers, P. (2016). Meta-analyses in mental health research. Colofon: Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.
   Google Scholar
• Dalgleish, T. (2004a). Cognitive approaches to posttraumatic stress disorder: The evolution of multirepresentational theorizing. Psychological Bulletin, 130(2), 228–260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dalgleish, T. (2004b). The emotional brain. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 5(7), 583–589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diehle, J., de Roos, C., Meiser-Stedman, R., Boer, F., & Lindauer, R. J. L. (2015). The Dutch version of the child posttraumatic cognitions inventory: Validation in a clinical sample and a school sample. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 6, 26362.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duffy, M., Bolton, D., Gillespie, K., Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2013). A community study of the psychological effects of the omagh car bomb on adults. PLoS One, 8(9), e76618.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duval, S., & Tweedie, R. (2000). Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 56(2), 455–463.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Egger, M., Davey Smith, G., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ, 315(7109), 629–634.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(4), 319–345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Field, E. L., Norman, P., & Barton, J. (2008). Cross-sectional and prospective associations between cognitive appraisals and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms following stroke. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(1), 62–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa, E., & Riggs, D. S. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder following assault: Theoretical considerations and empirical findings. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 61–65.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Tolin, D. F., & Orsillo, S. M. (1999). The Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment, 11(3), 303–314.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halligan, S. L., Michael, T., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder following assault: The role of cognitive processing, trauma memory, and appraisals. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(3), 419–431.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. London: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Higgins, J. P. T., & Thompson, S. G. (2004). Controlling the risk of spurious findings from meta-regression. Statistics in Medicine, 23, 1663–1682.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higgins, J. P. T., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 327(7414), 557–560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hiller, R. M., Meiser-Stedman, R., Fearon, P., Lobo, S., McKinnon, A., Fraser, A., & Halligan, S. L. (2016). Research review: Changes in the prevalence and symptom severity of child posttraumatic stress disorder in the year following trauma – A meta-analytic study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(8), 884–898.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holm, S. (1979). A simple sequentially rejective multiple test procedure. Scandinavian Journal of Statistics, 6, 65–70.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoy, D., Brooks, P., Woolf, A., Blyth, F., March, L., Bain, C., … Buchbinder, R. (2012). Assessing risk of bias in prevalence studies: Modification of an existing tool and evidence of interrater agreement. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 65(9), 934–939.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman, R. (1989). Assumptive worlds and the stress of traumatic events: Applications of the schema construct. Social Cognition, 7(2), 113–136.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman, R. (1992). Shattered assumptions: Towards a new psychology of trauma. New York: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jarde, A., Losilla, J., & Vives, J. (2012). Methodological quality assessment tools of non-experimental studies: A systematic review. Anales De psychologia/Annals of Psychology, 28(2), 617–628.
   Google Scholar
• Jensen, T. K., Holt, T., Mørup Ormhaug, S., Fjermestad, K. W., & Wentzel-Larsen, T. (2018). Change in posttraumatic cognitions mediates treatment effects for traumatized youth—A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65(2), 166–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kangas, M., Henry, J. L., & Bryant, R. A. (2005). Predictors of posttraurnatic stress disorder following cancer. Health Psychology, 24(6), 579–585.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Milanak, M. E., Miller, M. W., Keyes, K. M., & Friedman, M. J. (2013). National estimates of exposure to traumatic events and PTSD Prevalence using DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(5), 537–547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleim, B., Grey, N., Wild, J., Nussbeck, F. W., Stott, R., Hackmann, A., … Ehlers, A. (2013). Cognitive change predicts symptom reduction with cognitive therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 81(3), 383–393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenen, K., Ratanatharathorn, A., Ng, L., McLaughlin, K., Bromet, E., Stein, D., … Kessler, R. (2017). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the world mental health surveys. Psychological Medicine, 47(13), 2260–2274.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meiser-Stedman, R., Smith, P., Bryant, R., Salmon, K., Yule, W., Dalgleish, T., & Nixon, R. D. (2009). Development and validation of the Child posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (CPTCI). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(4), 432–440.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meiser‐Stedman, R., Smith, P., McKinnon, A., Dixon, C., Trickey, D., Ehlers, A., … Dalgleish, T. (2017). Cognitive therapy as an early treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: A randomized controlled trial addressing preliminary efficacy and mechanisms of action. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 58(5), 623–633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merikangas, K. R., He, J., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Cui, L., … Swendsen, J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in u.s. adolescents: Results from the national comorbidity survey replication–Adolescent supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(10), 980–989.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, R., Brennan, K., Curran, D., Hanna, D., & Dyer, K. F. W. (2017). A meta-analysis of the association between appraisals of trauma and posttraumatic stress in children and adolescents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 30(1), 88–93.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munn, Z., Moola, S., Riitano, D., & Lisy, K. (2014). The development of a critical appraisal tool for use in systematic reviews addressing questions of prevalence. International Journal of Health Policy and Management, 3(3), 123–128.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• National Heart Lung and Blood Institute. (2014). Quality assessment tool for observational, cohort and cross-sectional studies. Retrieved from https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-pro/guidelines/in-develop/cardiovascular-risk-reduction/tools/cohort
   Google Scholar
• NICE. (2012). Methods for the development of NICE public health guidance.
   Google Scholar
• Nixon, D. V., & Bryant, A. (2005). Are negative cognitions associated with severe acute trauma responses? Behaviour Change, 22(1), 22.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 52–73.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salmon, K., & Bryant, R. A. (2002). Posttraumatic stress disorder in children. The influence of developmental factors. Clinical Psychology Review, 22(2), 163–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shamliyan, T. A., Kane, R. L., Ansari, M. T., Raman, G., Berkman, N. D., Grant, M., … Tsouros, S. (2011). Development quality criteria to evaluate nontherapeutic studies of incidence, prevalence, or risk factors of chronic diseases: Pilot study of new checklists. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 64(6), 637–657.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Startup, M., Makgekgenene, L., & Webster, R. (2007). The role of self-blame for trauma as assessed by the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): A self-protective cognition? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45(2), 395–403.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trickey, D., Siddaway, A. P., Meiser-Stedman, R., Serpell, L., & Field, A. P. (2012). A meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 32(2), 122–138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Von Elm, E., Altman, D., Egger, M., Pocock, S. J., Gotzsche, P. C., & Vandenbroucke, J. P. (2007). The strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE) statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies. The Lancet, 370, 1453–1457.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar