References

• Alizadeh Fard, S., Mohtashami, T., Haghighatgoo, M., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2017). Investigation of psychometric characteristics of time perspective inventory (Short form) in adult population of tehran. CPAP, 14(2), 157–10. doi:10.22070/14.2.157
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, H., & Wells, A. (2010). Metacognition, memory disorganization and rumination in posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(3), 318–325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernstein, D. P., Stein, J. A., Newcomb, M. D., Walker, E., Pogge, D., Ahluvalia, T., … Zule, W. (2003). Development and validation of a brief screening version of the childhood trauma questionnaire. Child Abuse & Neglect, 27(2), 169–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond, F. W., Hayes, S. C., Baer, R. A., Carpenter, K. M., Guenole, N., Orcutt, H. K., … Zettle, R. D. (2011). Preliminary psychometric properties of the acceptance and action questionnaire–II: A revised measure of psychological inflexibility and experiential avoidance. Behavior Therapy, 42(4), 676–688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brinck, I., & Liljenfors, R. (2013). The developmental origin of metacognition. Infant and Child Development, 22(1), 85–101.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brodsky, B. S., Mann, J. J., Stanley, B., Tin, A., Oquendo, M., Birmaher, B., … Melhem, N. (2008). Familial transmission of suicidal behavior: Factors mediating the relationship between childhood abuse and offspring suicide attempts. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69(4), 584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, A. D., Root, J. C., Romano, T. A., Chang, L. J., Bryant, R. A., & Hirst, W. (2013). Overgeneralized autobiographical memory and future thinking in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 44(1), 129–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In I. A. Bollen & J. SLong (Eds.), Testing structural equations models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Copeland, W. E., Keeler, G., Angold, A., & Costello, E. J. (2007). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(5), 577–584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dar, M. A., Wani, R. A., Margoob, M. A., Haq, I., & Chandel, R. K. (2015). Role of early childhood traumatic stress in the development of PTSD in adulthood: A review. Journal of Psychiatry, 18(264), 2–5.
   Google Scholar
• Dvir, Y., Ford, J. D., Hill, M., & Frazier, J. A. (2014). Childhood maltreatment, emotional dysregulation, and psychiatric comorbidities. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 22(3), 149–161.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floyd, F. J., & Widaman, K. F. (1995). Factor analysis in the development and refinement of clinical assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 286.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gratz, K. L., Bornovalova, M. A., Delany-Brumsey, A., Nick, B., & Lejuez, C. W. (2007). A laboratory-based study of the relationship between childhood abuse and experiential avoidance among inner-city substance users: The role of emotional nonacceptance. Behavior Therapy, 38(3), 256–268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, S. C., Wilson, K. G., Gifford, E. V., Follette, V. M., & Strosahl, K. (1996). Experiential avoidance and behavioral disorders: a functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(6), 1152–1168.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Milanak, M. E., Miller, M. W., Keyes, K. M., & Friedman, M. J. (2013). National estimates of exposure to traumatic events and PTSD prevalence using DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 537–547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kishton, J. M., & Widaman, K. F. (1994). Unidimensional versus domain representative parceling of questionnaire items: An empirical example. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54(3), 757–765.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kline, N. K., Berke, D. S., Rhodes, C. A., Steenkamp, M. M., & Litz, B. T. (2018). Self-blame and PTSD following sexual assault: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 0886260518770652.
   Google Scholar
• Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kratzer, L., Heinz, P., Pfitzer, F., Padberg, F., Jobst, A., & Schennach, R. (2018). Mindfulness and pathological dissociation fully mediate the association of childhood abuse and PTSD symptomatology. European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 2(1), 5–10.
   Google Scholar
• Leahy, R. L., Tirch, D. D., & Napolitano, L. A. (2011). Emotion regulation in psychotherapy: A practitioner’s guide. New York, NY: Guilford press.
   Google Scholar
• Li, Y., & Seng, J. S. (2018). Child maltreatment trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and cortisol levels in women: A literature review. Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association, 24(1), 35–44.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lomax, R. G., & Schumacker, R. E. (2012). A beginner’s guide to structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Routledge Academic.
   Google Scholar
• Lowell, A., Renk, K., & Adgate, A. H. (2014). The role of attachment in the relationship between child maltreatment and later emotional and behavioral functioning. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(9), 1436–1449.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malarbi, S., Abu-Rayya, H. M., Muscara, F., & Stargatt, R. (2017). Neuropsychological functioning of childhood trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 72, 68–86.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazloom, M., Yaghubi, H., & Mohammadkhani, S. (2016). Post-traumatic stress symptom, metacognition, emotional schema and emotion regulation: A structural equation model. Personality and Individual Differences, 88, 94–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Messman‐Moore, T. L., & Bhuptani, P. H. (2017). A review of the long‐term impact of child maltreatment on posttraumatic stress disorder and its comorbidities: An emotion dysregulation perspective. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 24(2), 154–169.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myers, S. G., & Wells, A. (2015). Early trauma, negative affect, and anxious attachment: The role of metacognition. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 28(6), 634–649.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paolucci, E. O., Genius, M. L., & Violato, C. (2001). A meta-analysis of the published research on the effects of child sexual abuse. The Journal of Psychology, 135, 17–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pietrzak, R. H., Harpaz-Rotem, I., & Southwick, S. M. (2011). Cognitive-behavioral coping strategies associated with combat-related PTSD in treatment-seeking OEF–OIF veterans. Psychiatry Research, 189(2), 251–258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plumb, J. C., Orsillo, S. M., & Luterek, J. A. (2004). A preliminary test of the role of experiential avoidance in post-event functioning. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 35(3), 245–257.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, W. M., & Schmitt, N. (2004). Parameter recovery and model fit using multidimensional composites: A comparison of four empirical parceling algorithms. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39(3), 379–412.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roussis, P., & Wells, A. (2006). Post-traumatic stress symptoms: Tests of relationships with thought control strategies and beliefs as predicted by the metacognitive model. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(1), 111–122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scarpa, A., Wilson, L. C., Wells, A. O., Patriquin, M. A., & Tanaka, A. (2009). Thought control strategies as mediators of trauma symptoms in young women with histories of child sexual abuse. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 809–813.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider, W. (2008). The development of metacognitive knowledge in children and adolescents: Major trends and implications for education. Mind, Brain, and Education, 2(3), 114–121.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seligowski, A. V., Lee, D. J., Bardeen, J. R., & Orcutt, H. K. (2015). Emotion regulation and posttraumatic stress symptoms: A meta-analysis. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 44(2), 87–102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shenk, C. E., Putnam, F. W., & Noll, J. G. (2012). Experiential avoidance and the relationship between child maltreatment and PTSD symptoms: Preliminary evidence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(2), 118–126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shenk, C. E., Putnam, F. W., Rausch, J. R., Peugh, J. L., & Noll, J. G. (2014). A longitudinal study of several potential mediators of the relationship between child maltreatment and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 26(1), 81–91.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steine, I. M., Winje, D., Skogen, J. C., Krystal, J. H., Milde, A. M., Bjorvatn, B., … Pallesen, S. (2017). Posttraumatic symptom profiles among adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse: A longitudinal study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 67, 280–293.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stolarski, M., & Cyniak-Cieciura, M. (2016). Balanced and less traumatized: Balanced time perspective mediates the relationship between temperament and severity of PTSD syndrome in motor vehicle accident survivor sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 101, 456–461.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stolarski, M., Fieulaine, N., & van Beek, W. (2015). Time perspective theory; Review, research, and application. Cham: Springer International.
   Google Scholar
• Sword, R. M., Sword, R. K., Brunskill, S. R., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2014). Time perspective therapy: A new time-based metaphor therapy for PTSD. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 19(3), 197–201.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang, B., Deng, Q., Glik, D., Dong, J., & Zhang, L. (2017). A meta-analysis of risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in adults and children after earthquakes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(12), 1537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vang, M. L., Shevlin, M., Karatzias, T., Fyvie, C., & Hyland, P. (2018). Dissociation fully mediates the relationship between childhood sexual and emotional abuse and DSM-5 PTSD in a sample of treatment-seeking adults. European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation. doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2018.02.004
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013). The ptsd checklist for dsm-5 (pcl-5). Scale available from the National Center for PTSD. Retrieved from www.ptsd.va.gov
   Google Scholar
• Wells, A. (2000). Emotional disorders and metacognition: Innovative cognitive therapy. Chichester: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Wells, A. (2009). Metacognitive therapy for anxiety and depression. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wells, A., & Cartwright-Hatton, S. (2004). A short form of the metacognitions questionnaire: Properties of the MCQ-30. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(4), 385–396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westphal, M., Leahy, R. L., Pala, A. N., & Wupperman, P. (2016). Self-compassion and emotional invalidation mediate the effects of parental indifference on psychopathology. Psychiatry Research, 242, 186–191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1271–1288.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (2008). The time paradox. New York, NY: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zimbardo, P. G., Sword, R., & Sword, R. (2012). The time cure. San Francisco, CA: Wiley.
   Google Scholar