References

• Ben-Ezra, M., Karatzias, T., Hyland, P., Brewin, C. R., Cloitre, M., Bisson, J. I., … Shevlin, M. (2018). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD (CPTSD) as per ICD-11 proposals: A population study in Israel. Depression and Anxiety, 35(3), 264–14. doi:10.1002/da.22723
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biliunaite, I., Kazlauskas, E., Sanderman, R., Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene, I., Dumarkaite, A., & Andersson, G. (2021). Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy for informal caregivers: Randomized controlled pilot trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(4), 1–15. doi:10.2196/21466
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisson, J. I. (2013). What happened to harmonization of the PTSD diagnosis? The divergence of ICD11 and DSM5. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 22(3), 205–207. doi:10.1017/S2045796013000164
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bondjers, K., Hyland, P., Roberts, N. P., Bisson, J. I., Willebrand, M., & Arnberg, F. K. (2019). Validation of a clinician-administered diagnostic measure of ICD-11 PTSD and Complex PTSD: The International Trauma Interview in a Swedish sample. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1665617. doi:10.1080/20008198.2019.1665617
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bovin, M. J., Marx, B. P., Weathers, F. W., Gallagher, M. W., Rodriguez, P., Schnurr, P. P., & Keane, T. M. (2016). Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist for diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders–Fifth Edition (PCL-5) in veterans. Psychological Assessment, 28(11), 1379–1391. doi:10.1037/pas0000254
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R. (2020). Complex post-traumatic stress disorder: A new diagnosis in ICD-11. BJPsych Advances, 26(3), 145–152. doi:10.1192/bja.2019.48
   Google Scholar
• Brewin, C. R., Cloitre, M., Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., Maercker, A., Bryant, R. A., … Reed, G. M. (2017). A review of current evidence regarding the ICD-11 proposals for diagnosing PTSD and complex PTSD. Clinical Psychology Review, 58, 1–15. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2017.09.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson, E. B., Waelde, L. C., Palmieri, P. A., Macia, K. S., Smith, S. R., & McDade-Montez, E. (2018). Development and Validation of the dissociative symptoms scale. Assessment, 25(1), 84–98. doi:10.1177/1073191116645904
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, F., Curran, P. J., Bollen, K. A., Kirby, J., & Paxton, P. (2008). An empirical evaluation of the use of fixed cutoff points in RMSEA test statistic in structural equation models. Sociological Methods and Research, 36(4), 462–494. doi:10.1177/0049124108314720
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cloitre, M., Hyland, P., Bisson, J. I., Brewin, C. R., Roberts, N. P., Karatzias, T., & Shevlin, M. (2019). ICD-11 posttraumatic stress disorder and complex posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: A population-based study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(6), 833–842. doi:10.1002/jts.22454
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cloitre, M., Shevlin, M., Brewin, C. R., Bisson, J. I., Roberts, N. P., Maercker, A., … Hyland, P. (2018). The International Trauma Questionnaire: Development of a self-report measure of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 138(6), 536–546. doi:10.1111/acps.12956
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deegan, J. J. (1978). On the occurrence of standardized regression coefficients greater than one. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 38(4), 873–888. doi:10.1177/001316447803800404
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Facer-Irwin, E., Karatzias, T., Bird, A., Blackwood, N., & MacManus, D. (2021). PTSD and complex PTSD in sentenced male prisoners in the UK: Prevalence, trauma antecedents, and psychiatric comorbidities. Psychological Medicine, 1–11. doi:10.1017/S0033291720004936
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flora, D. B., & Curran, P. J. (2004). An empirical evaluation of alternative methods of estimation for confirmatory factor analysis with ordinal data. Psychological Methods, 9(4), 466–491. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.9.4.466
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ford, J. D., & Courtois, C. A. (2021). Complex PTSD and borderline personality disorder. Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation, 8(1), 1–21. doi:10.1186/s40479-021-00155-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frost, R., Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., & Murphy, J. (2020). Distinguishing complex PTSD from Borderline personality disorder among individuals with a history of sexual trauma: A latent class analysis. European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 4(1), 100080. doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2018.08.004
   Google Scholar
• Gegieckaite, G., & Kazlauskas, E. (2020). Do emotion regulation difficulties mediate the association between neuroticism, insecure attachment, and prolonged grief? Death Studies, 1–9. doi:10.1080/07481187.2020.1788667
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geier, T. J., Hunt, J. C., Nelson, L. D., Brasel, K. J., & deRoon-Cassini, T. A. (2019). Detecting PTSD in a traumatically injured population: The diagnostic utility of the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5. Depression and Anxiety, 36(2), 170–178. doi:10.1002/da.22873
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional Assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54. doi:10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen, M., Vægter, H. B., Cloitre, M., & Andersen, T. E. (2021). Validation of the Danish international trauma questionnaire for posttraumatic stress disorder in chronic pain patients using clinician-rated diagnostic interviews. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1). doi:10.1080/20008198.2021.1880747
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F., & Krippendorff, K. (2007). Answering the Call for a standard reliability measure for coding data. Communication Methods and Measures, 1(1), 77–89. doi:10.1080/19312450709336664
   Google Scholar
• Ho, G. W. K., Karatzias, T., Cloitre, M., Chan, A. C. Y., Bressington, D., Chien, W. T., … Shevlin, M. (2019). Translation and validation of the Chinese ICD-11 International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ) for the Assessment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Complex PTSD (CPTSD). European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1608718. doi:10.1080/20008198.2019.1608718
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., Brewin, C. R., Cloitre, M., Downes, A. J., Jumbe, S., … Roberts, N. P. (2017). Validation of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD using the International Trauma Questionnaire. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 136(3), 313–322. doi:10.1111/acps.12771
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., Fyvie, C., Cloitre, M., & Karatzias, T. (2020). The relationship between ICD-11 PTSD, complex PTSD and dissociative experiences. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 21(1), 62–72. doi:10.1080/15299732.2019.1675113
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hyland, P., Vallières, F., Cloitre, M., Ben-Ezra, M., Karatzias, T., Olff, M., … Shevlin, M. (2021). Trauma, PTSD, and complex PTSD in the republic of Ireland: Prevalence, service use, comorbidity, and risk factors. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 56(4), 649–658. doi:10.1007/s00127-020-01912-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karatzias, T., & Cloitre, M. (2019). Treating adults with complex posttraumatic stress disorder using a modular approach to treatment: Rationale, evidence, and directions for future research. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(6), 870–876. doi:10.1002/jts.22457
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karatzias, T., Hyland, P., Ben-Ezra, M., & Shevlin, M. (2018). Hyperactivation and hypoactivation affective dysregulation symptoms are integral in complex posttraumatic stress disorder: Results from a nonclinical Israeli sample. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 27(4), 1–7. doi:10.1002/mpr.1745
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karatzias, T., & Levendosky, A. A. (2019). Introduction to the Special section on complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD): The evolution of a disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32(6), 817–821. doi:10.1002/jts.22476
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karatzias, T., Murphy, P., Cloitre, M., Bisson, J., Roberts, N., Shevlin, M., … Hutton, P. (2019). Psychological interventions for ICD-11 complex PTSD symptoms: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 49(11), 1761–1775. doi:10.1017/S0033291719000436
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karatzias, T., Shevlin, M., Fyvie, C., Hyland, P., Efthymiadou, E., Wilson, D., … Cloitre, M. (2016). An initial psychometric assessment of an ICD-11 based measure of PTSD and complex PTSD (ICD-TQ): Evidence of construct validity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 44, 73–79. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.10.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karatzias, T., Shevlin, M., Fyvie, C., Hyland, P., Efthymiadou, E., Wilson, D., … Cloitre, M. (2017). Evidence of distinct profiles of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) based on the new ICD-11 trauma questionnaire (ICD-TQ). Journal of Affective Disorders, 207, 181–187. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.09.032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kazlauskas, E., Gegieckaite, G., Hyland, P., Zelviene, P., & Cloitre, M. (2018). The structure of ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD in Lithuanian mental health services. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(1), 1414559. doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1414559
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. In Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Koo, T. K., & Li, M. Y. (2016). A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine, 15(2), 155–163. doi:10.1016/j.jcm.2016.02.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kramer, L. B. (2019). Self-rated versus clinician-rated assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder: An evaluation of diagnostic discrepancies between the PTSD checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) and the clinician-administered PTSD scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5) [Doctoral dissertation]. Auburn University. Retrieved September 6, 2021, from http://etd.auburn.edu/handle/10415/6746
   Google Scholar
• Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 606–613. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., & Löwe, B. (2010). The patient health questionnaire somatic, anxiety, and depressive symptom scales: A systematic review. General Hospital Psychiatry, 32(4), 345–359. doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2010.03.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kvedaraite, M., Gelezelyte, O., Karatzias, T., Roberts, N. P., & Kazlauskas, E. (2021). Mediating role of avoidance of trauma disclosure and social disapproval in ICD-11 post-traumatic stress disorder and complex post-traumatic stress disorder : Cross-sectional study in a Lithuanian clinical sample. BJPsych Open, 7(e217), 1–7. doi:10.1192/bjo.2021.1055
   Google Scholar
• Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33(1), 159–174. doi:10.2307/2529310
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lechner-Meichsner, F., & Steil, R. (2021). A clinician rating to diagnose CPTSD according to ICD-11 and to evaluate CPTSD symptom severity: Complex PTSD Item Set additional to the CAPS (COPISAC). European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1). doi:10.1080/20008198.2021.1891726
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, D. J., Witte, T. K., Bardeen, J. R., Davis, M. T., & Weathers, F. W. (2016). A factor analytic evaluation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 72(9), 933–946. doi:10.1002/jclp.22297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maercker, A., Brewin, C. R., Bryant, R. A., Cloitre, M., Van Ommeren, M., Jones, L. M., … Reed, G. M. (2013). Diagnosis and classification of disorders specifically associated with stress: Proposals for ICD-11. World Psychiatry, 12(3), 198–206. doi:10.1002/wps.20057
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maercker, A., Hecker, T., Augsburger, M., & Kliem, S. (2018). ICD-11 prevalence rates of posttraumatic stress disorder and complex posttraumatic stress disorder in a German nationwide sample. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 206(4), 270–276. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000000790
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marmar, C. R., Schlenger, W., Henn-Haase, C., Qian, M., Purchia, E., Li, M., … Kulka, R. A. (2015). Course of posttraumatic stress disorder 40 years after the Vietnam war findings from the national Vietnam veterans longitudinal study. JAMA Psychiatry, 72(9), 875–881. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.0803
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison, K., Su, S., Keck, M., & Beidel, D. C. (2021). Psychometric properties of the PCL-5 in a sample of first responders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 77(2020), 102339. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102339
   Google Scholar
• Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus. The comprehensive modeling program for applied researchers user’s guide (8th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
   Google Scholar
• Oltmanns, J. R., & Widiger, T. A. (2019). Evaluating the assessment of the ICD-11 personality disorder diagnostic system. Psychological Assessment, 31(5), 674–684. doi:10.1037/pas0000693
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raykov, T. (1997). Estimation of composite reliability for congeneric measures. Applied Psychological Measurement, 21(2), 173–184. doi:10.1177/01466216970212006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redican, E., Nolan, E., Hyland, P., Cloitre, M., McBride, O., Karatzias, T., … Shevlin, M. (2021). A systematic literature review of factor analytic and mixture models of ICD-11 PTSD and CPTSD using the International Trauma Questionnaire. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 79, 102381. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts, N. P., Cloitre, M., Bisson, J., & Brewin, C. R. (2019). International trauma interview (ITI) for ICD- 11 PTSD and complex PTSD (Test Version 3.2).
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schmitt, D. P., & Allik, J. (2005). Simultaneous administration of the Rosenberg self-esteem scale in 53 nations: Exploring the universal and culture-specific features of global self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(4), 623–642. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.623
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Šeibokaitė, L., Endriulaitienė, A., Sullman, M. J. M., Markšaitytė, R., & Žardeckaitė-Matulaitienė, K. (2017). Difficulties in emotion regulation and risky driving among Lithuanian drivers. Traffic Injury Prevention, 18(7), 688–693. doi:10.1080/15389588.2017.1315109
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siqveland, J., Hussain, A., Lindstrøm, J. C., Ruud, T., & Hauff, E. (2017). Prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in persons with chronic pain: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00164
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B. W., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092–1097. doi:10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Topp, C. W., Østergaard, S. D., Søndergaard, S., & Bech, P. (2015). The WHO-5 well-being index: A systematic review of the literature. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 84(3), 167–176. doi:10.1159/000376585
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Truskauskaite-Kuneviciene, I., Brailovskaia, J., Kamite, Y., Petrauskaite, G., Margraf, J., & Kazlauskas, E. (2020). Does trauma shape identity? Exploring the links between lifetime trauma exposure and identity status in emerging adulthood. Frontiers in Psychology, 11(September), 1–9. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570644
   Google Scholar
• Vallières, F., Ceannt, R., Daccache, F., Abou Daher, R., Sleiman, J., Gilmore, B., … Hyland, P. (2018). ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD amongst Syrian refugees in Lebanon: The factor structure and the clinical utility of the International Trauma Questionnaire. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 138(6), 547–557. doi:10.1111/acps.12973
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. (2013a). The clinician-administered PTSD scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5). Interview available from the National Center for PTSD. Retrieved September 6, 2021, from www.ptsd.va.gov
   Google Scholar
• Weathers, F. W., Blake, D. D., Schnurr, P. P., Kaloupek, D. G., Marx, B. P., & Keane, T. M. (2013b). The life events checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5). Instrument available from the National Center for PTSD. Retrieved September 6, 2021, from www.ptsd.va.gov
   Google Scholar
• Wei, M., Russell, D. W., Mallinckrodt, B., & Vogel, D. L. (2007). The experiences in close relationship scale (ECR)-short form: Reliability, validity, and factor structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 88(2), 187–204. doi:10.1080/00223890701268041
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO Regional Office Europe. (1998). Wellbeing measures in primary health care/the depcare project. report on a WHO meeting, Stockholm, Sweden, 12-13 February. Copenhagen, Denmark: WHO Regional Office for Europe. Retrieved September 6, 2021, from https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0016/130750/E60246.pdf
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2018a). ICD-11: International classification of diseases 11th revision. Retrieved September 6, 2021, from https://icd.who.int/en/
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. (2018b). WHO releases new international classification of diseases (ICD 11). Retrieved September 6, 2021, from https://www.who.int/news/item/18-06-2018-who-releases-new-international-classification-of-diseases-(icd-11)
   Google Scholar