218
Views
14
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Health risk assessment of exposure to ambient concentrations of benzene, toluene and xylene in Pretoria West, South Africa

, , &

References

  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 2007a. Toxicological Profile for Benzene. Atlanta, GA: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 2007b. Toxicological Profile for Xylenes. Atlanta, GA: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
  • Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. 2011. “Toxic Substances Portal” Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. Accessed March 15, 2016. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/substances/indexAZ.asp#B.
  • Bortey-Sam, N., Y. Ikenaka, O. Akoto, S. M. M. Nakayama, Y. B. Yohannes, E. Baidoo, H. Mizukawa, and M. Ishizuka. 2015. “Levels, Potential Sources and Human Health Risk of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Particulate Matter (PM10) in Kumasi, Ghana.” Environmental Science and Pollution Research 22 (13): 9658–9667. doi: 10.1007/s11356-014-4022-1
  • Brauer, M., M. Amann, R. T. Burnett, A. Cohen, F. Dentener, M. Ezzati, S. B. Henderson et al. 2012. “Exposure Assessment for Estimation of the Global Burden of Disease Attributable to Outdoor Air Pollution.” Environmental Science and Technology Letters 46 (2): 652–660. doi: 10.1021/es2025752
  • Chetwittayachan, T., D. Shimazaki, and K. Yamamoto. 2002. “A Comparison of Temporal Variation of Particle-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (pPAHs) Concentration in Different Urban Environments: Tokyo, Japan, and Bangkok, Thailand.” Atmospheric Environment 36 (12): 2027–2037. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00099-7
  • Ciarrocca, M., T. Caciari, B. G. Ponticiello, P. A. Gioffre, G. Tomei, A. Sancini, M. P. Schifano et al. 2011. “Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Levels in Female Workers Exposed to Urban Pollutants.” International Journal of Environmental Health Research 21 (6): 391–401. doi: 10.1080/09603123.2011.560252
  • Clough, S. R. 2014a. Toluene. Bedford, NH, USA: Haley & Aldrich, Inc.
  • Clough, S. R. 2014b. Xylene. Bedford, NH, USA: Haley & Aldrich, Inc.
  • Demirel, G., Ö. Özden, T. Döğeroğlu, and E. O. Gaga. 2014. “Personal Exposure of Primary School Children to BTEX, NO2, and Ozone in Eskisehir, Turkey: Relationship with Indoor/Outdoor Concentrations and Risk Assessment.” Science of the Total Environment 473-474: 537–548. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.12.034
  • Department of Environmental Affairs. 2009. National Environmental Management: Air Quality 587 Act, 2004 (ACT NO. 39 of 2004). National ambient air quality standards. Pretoria: Department of Environmental Affairs.
  • Duffy, B. L., P. F. Nelson, Y. Ye, and L. A. Weeks. 1999. “Speciated Hydrocarbon Profiles and Calculated Reactivities of Exhaust and Evaporative Emissions from 82 in-use Light-Duty Australian Vehicles.” Atmospheric Environment 33 (2): 291–307. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00163-0
  • Durmusoglu, E., F. Taspinar, and A. Karademir. 2010. “Health Risk Assessment of BTEX Emissions in the Landfill Environment.” Journal of Hazardous Materials 176 (1-3): 870–877. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.11.117
  • Dutta, C., D. Som, A. Chatterjee, A. K. Mukherjee, T. K. Jana, and S. Sen. 2009. “Mixing Ratios of Carbonyls and BTEX in Ambient Air of Kolkata, India and Their Associated Health Risk.” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 148 (1): 97–107. doi: 10.1007/s10661-007-0142-0
  • Elevation Finder. 2014. “Freemaptools.com, Elevation of the City Hall in Pretoria.” Accessed April 8, 2015.
  • European Union. 2008. “Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on Ambient Air Quality and Cleaner Air for Europe.” Accessed April 26, 2016. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/.
  • Global Historical Climatology Network. 2008. Climate Data, 30-Year Climate Average 1979–2008, Goddard Institute of Space Studies. Accessed April 8, 2015.
  • Guo, H., S. C. Lee, K. F. Ho, X. M. Wang, and S. C. Zou. 2003. “Particle-Associated Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Urban Air of Hong Kong.” Atmospheric Environment 37 (38): 5307–5317. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2003.09.011
  • Hu, X., Y. Zhang, Z. Ding, T. Wang, H. Lian, Y. Sun, and J. Wu. 2012. “Bio-Accessibility and Health Risk of Arsenic and Heavy Metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn and Mn) in TSP and PM2.5 in Nanjing, China.” Atmospheric Environment 57: 146–152. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.04.056
  • Integrated Risk Information System. 2011. “Integrated Risk Information System Assessment.” Accessed March 15, 2011. http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/index.cfm?fuseaction = iris.showSubstanceList.
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1987. “Summaries & Evaluations: Benzene (Group 1).” Lyon, International Agency for Research on Cancer, p. 120 (IARC Monographs on the Carcinogenicity of Chemicals to Humans, Supplement 7).
  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. 2011. “List of Classifications by Alphabetical Order.” Accessed April 14, 2016. http://www.monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/index.php.
  • International Programme on Chemical Safety. 2004. “IPCS Risk Assessment Terminology.” Part 1: IPCS/OECD Key Generic Terms Used in Chemical Hazard/Risk Assessment. Part 2: IPCS Glossary of Key Exposure Assessment Terminology. Geneva, World Health Organization, International Programme on Chemical Safety (Harmonization Project Document No. 1. Accessed August 23, 2010. http://www.who.int/ipcs/methods/harmonization/areas/ipcsterminologyparts1and2.pdf.
  • Kim, K. H., S. A. Jahan, and E. Kabir. 2013. “A Review on Human Health Perspective of Air Pollution with Respect to Allergies and Asthma.” Environment International 59: 41–52. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2013.05.007
  • Kliucininkas, L., D. Martuzevicius, E. Krugly, T. Prasauskas, V. Kauneliene, P. Molnar, and B. Strandberg. 2011. “Indoor and Outdoor Concentrations of Fine Particles, Particle-Bound PAHs and Volatile Organic Compounds in Kaunas, Lithuania.” Journal of Environmental Monitoring 13: 182–191. doi: 10.1039/C0EM00260G
  • Kotzias, D., O. Geiss, S. Tirendi, J. Barrero-Moreno, V. Reina, A. Gotti, G. Cimino-Reale, B. Casati, E. Marafante, and D. Sarigiannis. 2009. “Exposure to Multiple Air Contaminants in Public Buildings, Schools and Kindergartens – The European Indoor Air Monitoring and Exposure Assessment (AIRMEX) Study.” Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 18: 670–681.
  • Lioy, P. J., Z. Fan, J. Zhang, P. Georgopoulos, S. W. Wang, P. Ohman-Strickland, X. Wu et al. 2011. “Personal and Ambient Exposures to Air Toxics in Camden, New Jersey.” Research Report (Health Effects Institute) 160: 3–127.
  • Llop, S., F. Ballester, M. Estarlich, A. Esplugues, M. Rebagliato, and C. Iñiguez. 2010. “Preterm Birth and Exposure to Air Pollutants During Pregnancy.” Environmental Research 110 (8): 778–785. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2010.09.009
  • Lupo, P. J., E. Symanski, D. K. Waller, W. Chan, P. H. Langlois, M. A. Canfield, and L. E. Mitchell. 2010. “Maternal Exposure to Ambient Levels of Benzene and Neural Tube Defects Among Offspring: Texas, 1999–2004.” Environmental Health Perspectives 119 (3): 397–402. doi: 10.1289/ehp.1002212
  • Mantis, J., A. Chaloulakou, and C. Samara. 2005. “PM10-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Greater Area of Athens, Greece.” Chemosphere 59 (5): 593–604. doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.10.019
  • Matooane, M., and R. Diab. 2003. “Health Risk Assessment for Sulfur Dioxide Pollution in South Durban, South Africa.” Archives of Environmental Health: An International Journal 58 (12): 763–770. doi: 10.3200/AEOH.58.12.763-770
  • Morakinyo, O. M., A. S. Adebowale, M. I. Mokgobu, and S. M. Mukhola. 2017. “Health Risk of Inhalation Exposure to Sub-10 µm Particulate Matter and Gaseous Pollutants in an Urban-Industrial Area in South Africa: An Ecological Study.” BMJ Open 7: e013941. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013941
  • Muller, E., R. D. Diab, M. Binedell, and R. Hounsome. 2003. “Health Risk Assessment of Kerosene Usage in An Informal Settlement in Durban, South Africa.” Atmospheric Environment 37 (15): 2015–2022. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(03)00125-0
  • National Research Council. 1983. Risk Assessment in the Federal Government: Managing the Process. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
  • Omar, N. Y. M. J., T. C. Mon, N. A. Rahman, and M. R. B. Abas. 2006. “Distributions and Health Risks of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Atmospheric Aerosols of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.” Science of the Total Environment 369 (1-3): 76–81. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.04.032
  • Oosthuizen, M. A., C. Y. Wright, M. Matooane, and N. Phala. 2015. “Human Health Risk Assessment of Airborne Metals to a Potentially Exposed Community: A Screening Exercise.” The Clean Air Journal 25 (1): 51–57. doi: 10.17159/2410-972X/2015/v25n1a5
  • Papageorgopoulou, A., E. Manoli, E. Touloumi, and C. Samara. 1999. “Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Ambient Air of Greek Towns in Relation to Other Atmospheric Pollutants.” Chemosphere 39 (13): 2183–2199. doi: 10.1016/S0045-6535(99)00143-5
  • Park, J. S., T. L. Wade, and S. Sweet. 2001. “Atmospheric Distribution of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Deposition to Galveston Bay, Texas, USA.” Atmospheric Environment 35 (19): 3241–3249. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00080-2
  • Poli, D., R. Andreoli, A. Mutti, E. C. Alexopoulos, E. B. Bakeas, and M. Goldoni. 2016. “Benzene: Environmental Exposure.” In Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, Elsevier Inc. doi.10.1016/8978-0-12-409548-9.09582-8.
  • Polkowska, Z., A. Kot, M. Wiergowski, L. Wolska, K. Wołowska, and J. Namieoenik. 2000. “Organic Pollutants in Precipitation: Determination of Pesticides and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Gdańsk, Poland.” Atmospheric Environment 34 (8): 1233–1245. doi: 10.1016/S1352-2310(99)00180-6
  • Ramírez, N., A. Cuadras, E. Rovira, F. Borrull, and R. M. Marcé. 2012. “Chronic Risk Assessment of Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds in the Atmosphere Near the Largest Mediterranean Industrial Site.” Environment International 39 (1): 200–209. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2011.11.002
  • Rumchev, K., H. Brown, and J. Spickett. 2007. “Volatile Organic Compounds: Do They Present a Risk to Our Health?” Reviews on Environmental Health 22 (1): 39–55. doi: 10.1515/REVEH.2007.22.1.39
  • Sarigiannis, D. A., S. P. Karakitsios, I. L. Liakos, A. Gotti, and A. Katsoyiannis. 2011. “Exposure to Major Volatile Organic Compounds and Carbonyls in European Indoor Environments and Associated Health Risk.” Environment International 37 (4): 743–765. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.005
  • Sexton, K., S. J. Mongin, J. L. Adgate, G. C. Pratt, G. Ramachandran, T. H. Stock, and M. T. Morandi. 2007. “Estimating Volatile Organic Compound Concentrations in Selected Microenvironments Using Time-Activity and Personal Exposure Data.” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A 70 (5): 465–76. doi: 10.1080/15287390600870858
  • Statistics South Africa. 2015. www.statssa.gov.za/. Accessed September 2, 2015.
  • Thabethe, N. D. L., J. C. Engelbrecht, C. Y. Wright, and M. A. Oosthuizen. 2014. “Human Health Risks Posed by Exposure to PM10 for Four Life Stages in a Low Socio-Economic Community in South Africa.” Pan African Medical Journal 18: 206. doi: 10.11604/pamj.2014.18.206.3393.
  • Tiwari, V., Y. Hanai, and S. Masunaga. 2010. “Ambient Levels of Volatile Organic Compounds in the Vicinity of Petrochemical Industrial Area of Yokohama, Japan.” Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health 3 (2): 65–75. doi: 10.1007/s11869-009-0052-0
  • United State Environmental Protection Agency. 1987. Risk Assessment Guidelines of 1986, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment. Washington, DC: EPA. 600-8.87/045.
  • United State Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. “Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Vol. 1: Human Health Evaluation Manual” (Part A). Accessed September 2, 2015. http://www.epa.gov/superfund/programs/risk/ragsa/.
  • United State Environmental Protection Agency. 1998. “Human Health Risk Assessment Protocol for Hazardous Waste Combustion Facilities.” Accessed April 9, 2016. http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/combust/risk.htm.
  • United State Environmental Protection Agency. 2002. Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). “Toxicological Review of Benzene” (Non-Cancer Effects) (EPA/635/R-02/001F), Washington, DC. Accessed April 9, 2016. http://www.epa.gov/iris/toxreviews/0276tr.pdf.
  • United State Environmental Protection Agency. 2009. Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry (ATSDR). “Minimal Risk Levels List.” Washington, DC. Accessed 9 April 2016. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/mrls/mrllist.asp#14tag.
  • United State Environmental Protection Agency. 2011a. United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention Toxics and Syracuse Research Corporation. EPI Suite Quantitative Structure Activity Relationship Computer Program. Accessed April 9, 2016. http://www.epa.gov/oppt/exposure/pubs/episuite.htm.
  • United State Environmental Protection Agency. 2011b. “Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund.” In Part A: Human Health Evaluation Manual; Part E, Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment, Part F, Supplemental Guidance for Inhalation Risk Assessment, vol. 1. htttp://www.epa.gov/oswer/riskassessment/human_health_exposure.htm.
  • Wang, T., P. Bo, T. Bing, Z. Zhaoyun, D. Liyu, and L. Yonglong. 2014. “Benzene Homologues in Environmental Matrixes from a Pesticide Chemical Region in China: Occurrence, Health Risk and Management.” Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 104: 357–364. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.01.035
  • Wargocki, P., and D. P. Wyon. 2013. “Providing Better Thermal and Air Quality Conditions in School Classrooms Would Be Cost-Effective.” Building and Environment 59: 581–589. doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.10.007
  • Weichenthal, S., R. Kulka, P. Bélisle, L. Joseph, A. Dubeau, C. Martin, D. Wang, and R. Dales. 2012. “Personal Exposure to Specific Volatile Organic Compounds and Acute Changes in Lung Function and Heart Rate Variability Among Urban Cyclists.” Environmental Research 118: 118–123. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2012.06.005
  • Wiriya, W., T. Prapamontol, and S. Chantara. 2013. “PM10-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Chiang Mai (Thailand): Seasonal Variations, Source Identification, Health Risk Assessment and Their Relationship to Air-Mass Movement.” Atmospheric Research 124: 109–122. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosres.2012.12.014
  • World Health Organization. 2000. Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. Regional Office for Europe. 2nd ed. Copenhagen. Accessed February 28, 2011. http://www.euro.who.int/data/assets/pdf_file/0005/74732/E71922.pdf, 2000.
  • World Health Organization. 2014. “Ambient (Outdoor) Air Quality and Health.” http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/. Accessed May 11, 2016.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.