The testing effect in immediate recognition: tests of the episodic context account

References

• Appleton-Knapp, S. L., Bjork, R. A., & Wickens, T. D. (2005). Examining the spacing effect in advertising: Encoding variability, retrieval processes, and their interaction. Journal of Consumer Research, 32, 266–276. doi: 10.1086/432236
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borenstein, M., Hedges, L., & Rothstein, D. (2007). Meta-analysis: Fixed effect vs. random effects. Retrieved from http://www.metaanalysis.com/downloads/Meta-analysis_fixed_effect_vs_random_effects_sv.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Carpenter, S. K. (2009). Cue strength as a moderator of the testing effect: The benefits of elaborative retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 35, 1563–1569.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carpenter, S. K. (2011). Semantic information activated during retrieval contributes to later retention: Support for the mediator effectiveness hypothesis of the testing effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 37, 1547–1552.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carpenter, S. K., & DeLosh, E. L. (2006). Impoverished cue support enhances subsequent retention: Support for the elaborative retrieval explanation of the testing effect. Memory & Cognition, 34, 268–276. doi: 10.3758/BF03193405
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 354–380. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, J. C. K., & McDermott, K. B. (2007). The testing effect in recognition memory: A dual process account. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 431–437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung, C., & Light, L. (2009). Effects of age and study repetition on plurality discrimination. Aging in Neuropsychology and Cognition, 16, 445–460. doi: 10.1080/13825580902773875
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cumming, G. (2012). Understanding the new statistics: Effect sizes, confidence intervals, and meta-analysis. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Curran, T., & Hintzman, D. L. (1995). Violations of the independence assumption in process dissociation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 21, 531–547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delaney, P. F., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & Spirgel, A. S. (2010). Spacing and testing effects: A deeply critical, lengthy, and at times discursive review of the literature. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 53, 63–147. doi: 10.1016/S0079-7421(10)53003-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diana, R. A., Reder, L. M., Arndt, J., & Park, H. (2006). Models of recognition: A review of evidence in favor of a dual-process account. Psychological Bulletin, 13, 1–21. doi: 10.3758/BF03193807
   Google Scholar
• Dodson, C. S., & Johnson, M. K. (1996). Some problems with the process-dissociation approach to memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125, 181–194. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.125.2.181
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunn, J. C. (2004). Remember–know: A matter of confidence. Psychological Review, 111, 524–542. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.111.2.524
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Estes, W. K. (1955). Statistical theory of spontaneous recovery and regression. Psychological Review, 62, 145–154. doi: 10.1037/h0048509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41, 1149–1160. doi: 10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175–191. doi: 10.3758/BF03193146
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friendly, M., Franklin, P. E., Hoffman, D., & Rubin, D. C. (1982). The Toronto word pool: Norms for imagery, concreteness, orthographic variables, and grammatical usage for 1,080 words. Behavior Research Methods, 14, 375–399. doi: 10.3758/BF03203275
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glover, J. A. (1989). The ‘‘testing’’ phenomenon: Not gone but nearly forgotten. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 392–399. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.81.3.392
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halamish, V., & Bjork, R. A. (2011). When does testing enhance retention? A distribution-based interpretation of retrieval as a memory modifier. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37, 801–812.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedges, L. V., & Vevea, J. L. (1998). Fixed- and random-effects models in meta-analysis. Psychological Methods, 3, 486–504. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.3.4.486
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard, M. W., & Kahana, M. J. (2002). A distributed representation of temporal context. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 46, 269–299. doi: 10.1006/jmps.2001.1388
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacoby, L. L. (1992). A process dissociation framework: Separating automatic from intentional uses of memory. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 513–541. doi: 10.1016/0749-596X(91)90025-F
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jang, Y., & Huber, D. E. (2008). Context retrieval and context change in free recall: Recalling from long-term memory drives list isolation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34, 112–127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karpicke, J. D., Lehman, M., & Aue, W. R. (2014). Retrieval-based learning: An episodic context account. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), Psychology of Learning and Motivation, Vol. 61 (pp. 237–284). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kučera, H., & Francis, W. N. (1967). Computational analysis of present-day American English. Providence: Brown University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lehman, M., & Malmberg, K. J. (2009). A global theory of remembering and forgetting from multiple lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 970–988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehman, M., Smith, M. A., & Karpicke, J. D. (2014). Toward an episodic context account of retrieval-based learning: Dissociating retrieval practice and elaboration. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40, 1787–1794.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maddox, G. B., & Balota, D. A. (2015). Retrieval practice and spacing effects in and young and older adults: An examination of the benefits of desirable difficulty. Memory & Cognition, 45, 760–774. doi: 10.3758/s13421-014-0499-6
   Google Scholar
• Malmberg, K. J. (2008). Recognition memory: A review of the critical findings and an integrated theory for relating them. Cognitive Psychology, 57, 335–384. doi: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2008.02.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mensink, G. J. M., & Raaijmakers, J. G. W. (1989). A model of contextual fluctuation. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 33, 172–186. doi: 10.1016/0022-2496(89)90029-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulligan, N. W., & Peterson, D. J. (2015). Negative and positive testing effects in terms of item specific and relational information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 41, 859–871.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyc, M. A., & Rawson, K. A. (2009). Testing the retrieval effort hypothesis: Does greater difficulty correctly recalling information lead to higher levels of memory? Journal of Memory and Language, 60, 437–447. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2009.01.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyc, M. A., & Rawson, K. A. (2012). Why is retrieval practice beneficial for memory? An evaluation of the mediator shift hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 38, 737–746.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raaijmakers, J. G. W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1981). Search of associative memory. Psychological Review, 88, 93–134. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.88.2.93
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rawson, K. A., & Dunlosky, J. (2011). Optimizing schedules of retrieval practice for durable and efficient learning: How much is enough? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 140, 283–302. doi: 10.1037/a0023956
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rawson, K. A., Vaughn, K. E., & Carpenter, S. K. (2015). Does the benefit of testing depend on lag, and if so, why? Evaluation the elaborative retrieval hypothesis. Memory and Cognition, 43, 619–633. doi: 10.3758/s13421-014-0477-z
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roediger, H. L., III, & Butler, A. C., (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 20–27. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roediger, H. L., III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 181–210. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2011). Intricacies of spaced retrieval: A resolution. In A. S. Benjamin (Ed.), Successful remembering and successful forgetting: Essays in honor of Robert A. Bjork (pp. 23–48). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rowland, C. A. (2014). The effect of testing versus restudy on retention: A meta-analytic review of the testing effect. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 1432–1463. doi: 10.1037/a0037559
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahakyan, L., & Delaney, P. F. (2005). Directed forgetting in incidental learning and recognition testing: Support for a two-factor account. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 31, 789–801.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahakyan, L., Delaney, P. F., Foster, N. L., & Abushanab, B. (2013). List-method directed forgetting in cognitive and clinical research: A theoretical and methodological review. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 59, 131–189. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-407187-2.00004-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahakyan, L., & Hendricks, H. E. (2012). Context change and retrieval difficulty in the list-before-last paradigm. Memory & Cognition, 40, 844–860. doi: 10.3758/s13421-012-0198-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahakyan, L., & Kelley, C. M. (2002). A contextual change account of the directed forgetting effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 1064–1072.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahakyan, L., Waldum, E. R., Benjamin, A. S., & Bickett, S. P. (2009). Where is the forgetting with list-method directed forgetting in recognition? Memory & Cognition, 37, 464–476. doi: 10.3758/MC.37.4.464
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanislaw, H., & Todorov, N. (1993). Calculation of signal detection theory measures. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 31, 137–149. doi: 10.3758/BF03207704
   Google Scholar
• Sutterer, D. W., & Awh, E. (2016). Retrieval practice enhances the accessibility but not the quality of memory. Psychonomic Bulletin Review, 23, 831–841. doi: 10.3758/s13423-015-0937-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaughn, K. E., & Rawson, K. A. (2014). Effects of criterion level on associative memory: Evidence for associative asymmetry. Journal of Memory and Language, 75, 14–26. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2014.04.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verkoeijen, P. J. L., Tabbers, H. K., & Verhage, M. L. (2011). Comparing the effects of testing and restudying on recollection in recognition memory. Experimental Psychology, 58, 490–498. doi: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000117
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whiffen, J. W., & Karpicke, J. D. (2017). The role of episodic context in retrieval practice effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43, 1036–1046.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yonelinas, A. P. (2002). The nature of recollection and familiarity: A review of 30 Years of research. Journal of Memory and Language, 46, 441–517. doi: 10.1006/jmla.2002.2864
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaromb, F. M., & Roediger, H. L. (2010). The testing effect in free recall is associated with enhanced organizational processes. Memory and Cognition, 38, 995–1008. doi: 10.3758/MC.38.8.995
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar