Land-use impacts on woody plant density and diversity in an African savanna charcoal production region

References

• Anderson , TM , Ritchie , ME and Mc Naughton , SJ. 2007 . Rainfall and soils modify plant community response to grazing in Serengeti National Park . Ecology , 88 ( 5 ) : 1191 – 1201 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banda , T , Mwangulango , N , Meyer , B , Schwartz , MK , Mbago , F , Sungula , M and Caro , T. 2008 . The woodland vegetation of Katavi-Rukwa ecosystem in western Tanzania . For Ecol Manage , 255 ( 8–9 ) : 3382 – 3395 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banda , T , Schwartz , MW and Caro , T. 2006 . Woody vegetation and composition along a protection gradient in a miombo ecosystem of western Tanzania . For Ecol Manage , 230 ( 1–3 ) : 179 – 185 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beater , MMT , Garner , RD and Witkowski , ETF. 2008 . Impacts of clearing invasive alien plants from 1995 to 2005 on vegetation structure, invasion intensity and ground cover in a temperate to subtropical riparian ecosystem . S Afr J Bot , 74 ( 3 ) : 495 – 507 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bond , WJ and van Wilgen , BW. 1996 . Fire and plants , 38 – 42 . London , UK : Chapman and Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Braedt , O and Stranda-Gunda , W. 2000 . Woodcraft markets in Zimbabwe . Int Tree Crops J , 10 : 367 – 384 .
   Google Scholar
• Cabral , AC , De Miguel , JM , Rescia , AJ , Schmitz , MF and Pineda , FD. 2003 . Shrub encroachment in Argentinean savannas . J Veg Sci , 14 ( 2 ) : 145 – 152 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cadotte , MW , France , R , Reza , L and Lovett-Doust , J. 2002 . Tree and shrub diversity and abundance in fragmented littoral forest of south-eastern Madagascar . Biodivers Conserv , 11 ( 8 ) : 1417 – 1436 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coetzer , KL , Erasmus , BFN , Witkowski , ETF and Bachoo , AK. 2010 . Land-cover change in the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Reserve (1993–2006): a first step towards creating a conservation plan for the subregion . S Afr J Sci , 106 ( 7/8 ) : 26 – 35 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Colwell RK. 2006. EstimateS: statistical estimation of species richness and shared species from samples, version 8.0 [Internet]. [cited 2008 Jun 15]. purl.oclc.org/estimates (http://purl.oclc.org/estimates)
   Google Scholar
• Colwell , RK , Mao , CX and Chang , J. 2004 . Interpolating, extrapolating and comparing incidence-based species accumulation curves . Ecology , 85 ( 10 ) : 2717 – 2727 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cousins , SAO and Eriksson , O. 2002 . The influence of management history and habitat on plant species richness in a rural hemiboreal landscape, Sweden . Landscape Ecol , 17 ( 6 ) : 517 – 529 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cowling , RM and Witkowski , ETF. 1994 . Convergence and non-convergence of plant traits in climatically and edaphically matched sites in Mediterranean Australia and South Africa . Aust J Ecol , 19 ( 2 ) : 220 – 232 .
   Google Scholar
• Dovie , DBK , Shackleton , CM and Witkowski , ETF. 2002 . Direct-use values of woodland resources consumed and traded in a South African village . Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol , 9 ( 3 ) : 269 – 283 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dovie , DBK , Witkowski , ETF and Shackleton , CM. 2005 . Monetary valuation of livelihoods for understanding the composition and complexity of rural households . Agric Human Values , 22 ( 1 ) : 87 – 103 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dovie , DBK , Witkowski , ETF and Shackleton , CM. 2008 . Knowledge of plant resource use based on location, gender and generation . Appl Geogr , 28 ( 4 ) : 311 – 322 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eilu , G , Hafashimana , DLN and Kasenene , JM. 2004 . Density and species diversity of trees in four tropical forest of the Albertine Rift, Western Uganda . Divers Distr , 10 ( 4 ) : 303 – 312 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher , JT , Witkowski , ETF , Erasmus , BFN , Van Aardt , J , Asner , GP , Wessels , K and Mathieu , R. 2011 . Human-modified landscapes: patterns of fine-scale woody vegetation structure in communal savannah rangelands . Environ Conserv , 39 ( 1 ) : 72 – 82 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folke , C , Carpenter , S , Walker , B , Scheffer , M , Elmqvist , T , Gunderson , L and Holling , CS. 2004 . Regime shifts, resilience, and biodiversity in ecosystem management . Annu Rev Ecol Syst , 35 : 557 – 581 .
   Google Scholar
• Gotelli , JN and Colwell , RK. 2001 . Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the measurement and comparison of species richness . Ecol Lett , 4 ( 4 ) : 379 – 391 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grace , JB. 2001 . The roles of community biomass and species pools in the regulation of plant diversity . Oikos , 92 ( 2 ) : 193 – 207 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanley , ME. 1998 . Seedling herbivory, community composition and plant life history traits: perspectives in plant ecology . Evol Syst , 1 ( 2 ) : 191 – 205 .
   Google Scholar
• Hayek , LC and Buzas , MA. 1997 . Surveying natural populations , New York , NY : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Helm , CV , Wilson , G , Midgley , JJ , Kruger , L and Witkowski , ETF. 2011 . Investigating the vulnerability of an African savanna tree (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) to fire and herbivory . Aust Ecol , 36 ( 8 ) : 964 – 973 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• John , R , Dalling , JW , Harms , KE , Yavilt , JB , Stallard , RF , Mirabello , M Hubbell , SP . 2007 . Soil nutrients influence spatial distributions of tropical tree species . PNAS , 104 ( 3 ) : 864 – 869 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalema , VN. 2010 . Diversity, use and resilience of woody species in a multiple land use Equatorial African Savanna, Central Uganda [PhD thesis]. [Johannesburg (South Africa)] , Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand .
   Google Scholar
• Katende , AB , Birnie , A and Tengnas , B. 1995 . Useful trees and shrubs for Uganda. Identification, propagation and management for agricultural and pastoral communities , Nairobi (Kenya) : Regional Soil Conservation Unit, RSCU/SIDA . Technical Handbook No. 10
   Google Scholar
• Kituyi , E. 2004 . Towards sustainable production and use of charcoal in Kenya: exploring the potential in life cycle management approach . J Cleaner Prod , 12 ( 8–10 ) : 1047 – 1057 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleidon , A and Mooney , HA. 2000 . A global distribution of biodiversity inferred from climatic constraints: results from a process-based modelling study . Glob Change Biol , 6 ( 5 ) : 507 – 523 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langdale-Brown , I , Osmaston , HA and Wilson , JG. 1964 . The vegetation of Uganda and its bearing to land-use , Entebbe (Uganda) : Government Printers .
   Google Scholar
• Luoga , EJ , Witkowski , ETF and Balkwill , K. 2000a . Economic of charcoal production in miombo woodlands of eastern Tanzania: some hidden costs associated with commercialization of the resources . Ecol Econ , 35 ( 2 ) : 243 – 257 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luoga , EJ , Witkowski , ETF and Balkwill , K. 2000b . Differential utilisation and ethnobotany of trees in Kitulanghalo Forest Reserve and surrounding communal lands, eastern Tanzania . Econ Bot , 54 ( 3 ) : 328 – 343 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luoga , EJ , Witkowski , ETF and Balkwill , K. 2002 . Harvested and standing wood stocks in protected and communal miombo woodlands of eastern Tanzania . For Ecol Manage , 164 ( 1–3 ) : 15 – 30 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luoga , EJ , Witkowski , ETF and Balkwill , K. 2004 . Regeneration by coppicing (resprouting) of miombo (African savanna) trees in relation to land-use . For Ecol Manage , 189 ( 1–3 ) : 23 – 35 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luoga , EJ , Witkowski , ETF and Balkwill , K. 2005 . Land-cover and use changes in relation to the institutional framework and tenure of land and resources in eastern Tanzania miombo woodlands . Environ Dev Sustain , 7 ( 1 ) : 71 – 93 .
   Google Scholar
• Magurran , AE. 2004 . Measuring biological diversity , 1 – 256 . Oxford (UK) : Blackwell Science Ltd .
   Google Scholar
• Malimbwi , RE , Misana , S , Monela , GC , Jambiya , G and Zahabu , E. 1994 . Impact of charcoal extraction to the forest resources of Tanzania , Sabadell (Spain) : Charcoal Potential in Southern Africa (CHAPOSA) .
   Google Scholar
• Mbalo , BA and Witkowski , ETF. 1997 . Tolerance to soil temperatures experienced during and after the passage of fire in seed of Acacia karoo, Acacia nilotica and Chromolaena odorata: a laboratory study . S Afr J Bot , 63 ( 6 ) : 421 – 425 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Millennium Ecosystem Assessment . 2005a . Ecosystem and human well-being: biodiversity synthesis , Washington , DC : Island Press .
   Google Scholar
• Millennium Ecosystem Assessment . 2005b . Ecosystem and human well-being: desertification synthesis , Washington (DC) : Island Press .
   Google Scholar
• Morris , B. 1995 . Woodland and village: reflections on the ‘animal estate’ in rural Malawi . J R Anthropol Inst (NS) , 1 : 301 – 315 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mwase , WF , Bjornstand , A , Bokosi , JM , Kwapata , MB and Stedje , B. 2007 . The role of land tenure in conservation of tree and shrub species diversity in miombo woodlands of southern Malawi . New For , 33 ( 3 ) : 297 – 307 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mwavu , EN and Witkowski , ETF. 2008a . Sprouting of woody species following cutting and tree-fall in a lowland semi-deciduous tropical rainforest, North-Western Uganda . For Ecol Manage , 255 ( 3 ) : 982 – 992 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mwavu , EN and Witkowski , ETF. 2008b . Land-use and cover changes (1988–2002), around Budongo Forest Reserve, NW Uganda: implications for forest and woodland sustainability . Land Degrad Dev , 19 ( 6 ) : 606 – 622 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mwavu , EN and Witkowski , ETF. 2009 . Seedling regeneration, environment and management in a semi-deciduous African tropical rain forest . J Veg Sci , 20 ( 5 ) : 791 – 804 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakasongola Local Government . 2002 . District environment profile: Nakasongola District Forest Development plan 2003–2014 , 1 – 79 . Nakasongola (Uganda) : District Forest Services .
   Google Scholar
• Namaalwa , J , Eid , T and Sankhayan , P. 2005 . A multi-species density-dependent matrix growth model for the dry woodlands of Uganda . For Ecol Manage , 213 ( 1–3 ) : 312 – 327 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nangendo , G , Steege , HT and Bongers , F. 2006 . Composition of woody species in a dynamic forest-woodland-savannah mosaic in Uganda: implications for conservation and management . Biodivers Conserv , 15 ( 4 ) : 1467 – 1495 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Environment Management Authority . 2002 . State of environment report for Uganda , Kampala , , Uganda : Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources .
   Google Scholar
• Natta , AK , Sinsin , B and van Der Maesen , LJG. 2002 . Riparian forests, a unique but endangered ecosystem of Benin . Bot Jahrb Syst , 124 ( 1 ) : 55 – 69 .
   Google Scholar
• O'Connor , TG , Martindale , G , Morris , CD , Short , A , Witkowski , ETF and Scott-Shaw , R. 2011 . Influence of grazing management on plant diversity of highland Sourveld Grassland, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa . Rangeland Ecol Manage , 64 ( 2 ) : 196 – 207 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker , D , Downer , ER and Cole , GED. 1967 . Atlas of Uganda , Entebbe (Uganda) : Department of Lands and Survey, Government Printers .
   Google Scholar
• Pitman , NCA , Terborgh , J , Silman , MR and Nuñez , PV. 1999 . Tree species distributions in the upper Amazonian forest . Ecology , 80 ( 8 ) : 2651 – 2661 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polhill , RM , ed. 1952 . Flora of tropical east Africa (FTEA) , London (UK) : Royal Botanic Gardens .
   Google Scholar
• Pomeroy , D , Tushabe , H , Mwima , P and Kasoma , P. 2002 . Uganda ecosystem and protected area characterisation: a contribution to Strategic Criteria for Rural Investments in Productivity (SCRIP). Program of the USAID Uganda Mission , 1 – 55 . Washington (DC) : USAID .
   Google Scholar
• Rennolls , K and Laumonier , Y. 2000 . Species diversity structure analysis at two sites in tropical rain forest of Sumatra . J Trop Ecol , 16 ( 2 ) : 253 – 270 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sala , OE , Chapin , FS , Armesto , JJ , Berlow , E , Bloomfeld , J , Dirzo , R , Huber-Sanwald , E , Huenneke , LF , Jackson , RB Kinzig , A . 2000 . Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100 . Science , 287 ( 5459 ) : 1770 – 1774 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarr , DA , Hibbs , DE and Huston , MA. 2005 . A hierarchical perspective of plant diversity . Q Rev Biol , 80 ( 2 ) : 187 – 212 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultka , W and Cornelius , R. 1997 . Vegetation structure of a heavily grazed range in northern Kenya: tree and shrub canopy . J Arid Environ , 36 ( 2 ) : 291 – 306 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seaby , RMH and Henderson , PA. 2007 . Species diversity and Richness® version IV (SDR 4.0) , Lymington (UK) : Pisces Conservation Ltd .
   Google Scholar
• Seaby , RMH , Henderson , PA and Prendergast , JR. 2007 . Community analysis package® version 4 (CAP 4) , Lymington (UK) : Pisces Conservation Ltd .
   Google Scholar
• Senft , RL , Coughenour , MB , Bailey , DW , Rittenhouse , LR , Sala , OE and Swift , DM. 1987 . Large herbivore foraging and ecological hierarchies: landscape ecology can enhance traditional foraging theory . Bioscience , 37 ( 11 ) : 789 – 799 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinclair , ARE and Arcese , P , eds. 1995 . Serengeti II: dynamics, management and conservation of an ecosystem , Chicago (IL) : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Soininen , J , Lennon , JJ and Hillebrand , H. 2007 . A multivariate analysis of beta-diversity across organisms and environments . Ecology , 88 ( 11 ) : 2830 – 2838 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teketay , D. 1997 . Germination ecology of Acacia negrii, an endemic multipurpose tree from Ethiopia . Trop Ecol , 38 ( 1 ) : 39 – 46 .
   Google Scholar
• Tilman , D , Cossman , KG , Matson , PA , Naylor , R and Polasky , S. 2002 . Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices . Nature , 418 : 671 – 677 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uganda Bureau of Statistics . 2002 . Uganda population and housing census , Kampala (Uganda) : Uganda Bureau of Statistics .
   Google Scholar
• USDA Forest Service . 1989 . Interim resource inventory glossary , Washington (DC) : Department of Agriculture, Forest Service .
   Google Scholar
• Van Vegten , JA. 1983 . Thornbush invasion in a savanna ecosystem in eastern Botswana . Vegetatio , 56 ( 1 ) : 3 – 7 .
   Google Scholar
• Venter , SM and Witkowski , ETF. 2011 . Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) fruit production in communal and conservation land-use types in Southern Africa . For Ecol Manage , 261 ( 3 ) : 630 – 639 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldhardt , R and Otte , A. 2003 . Indicators of plant species and community diversity in grasslands . Agric Ecosyst Environ , 98 ( 1–3 ) : 339 – 351 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White , F. 1983 . The vegetation of Africa. A descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAET/UNSO vegetation map of Africa , Paris (France) : UNESCO .
   Google Scholar
• Williams , VL , Witkowski , ETF and Balkwill , K. 2005 . Application of diversity indices to appraise plant availability in the traditional medicinal markets of Johannesburg, South Africa . Biodivers Conserv , 14 ( 12 ) : 2971 – 3001 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witkowski , ETF and Garner , RD. 2000 . Spatial distribution of soil seed banks of three African savanna woody species at contrasting sites . Plant Ecol , 149 ( 1 ) : 91 – 106 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witkowski , ETF and Garner , RD. 2008 . Seed production, seed bank dynamics, resprouting and long-term response to clearing of the alien invasive Solanum mauritianum in a temperate to subtropical riparian ecosystem . S Afr J Bot , 74 ( 3 ) : 476 – 484 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yirdaw , E and Luukkanen , O. 2003 . Indigenous woody species diversity in Eucalyptus globules Labill. ssp globules plantations in the Ethiopian highlands. Biodivers . Conserv , 12 ( 3 ) : 567 – 582 .
   Google Scholar
• Zapfack , L , Engwald , S , Sonke , B , Achoundong , G and Madong , BA. 2002 . The impact of land conversion on plant biodiversity in the forest zone of Cameroon . Biodivers Conserv , 11 ( 11 ) : 2047 – 2061 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar