Tweeting racial representation: how the congressional Black Caucus used Twitter in the 113th congress

References

• Anderson, William D., Janet M. Box-Steffensmeier, and Valeria Sinclair-Chapman. 2003. “The Keys to Legislative Success in the US House of Representatives.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 28 (3): 357–386.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ardoin, Phillip J. 2013. “Why Don't You Tweet? The Congressional Black Caucus’ Social Media Gap.” Race, Gender & Class 20 (1/2): 130–140.
   Google Scholar
• Barberá, Pablo. 2015. “Birds of the Same Feather Tweet Together: Bayesian Ideal Point Estimation Using Twitter Data.” Political Analysis 23 (1): 76–91.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barker, Lucius J., and Jesse J. McCorry. 1976. Black Americans and the Political System. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Barnett, Marguerite Ross. 1975. “The Congressional Black Caucus.” The Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science 32 (1): 35–50.
   Google Scholar
• Barnett, Marguerite Ross. 1977. “The CBC and the Institutionalization of Black Politics.” Journal of Afro-American Issues 5: 201–227.
   Google Scholar
• Barnett, Marguerite Ross. 1982. “The Congressional Black Caucus: Illusions and Realities of Power.” In The New Black Politics, edited by Michael B. Preston, Lenneal J. Henderson, and Paul L. Puryear, 28–39. New York: Longman.
   Google Scholar
• Binstock, Robert H. 2000. “Older People and Voting Participation: Past and Future.” The Gerontologist 40 (1): 18–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bositis, David. 1994. The Congressional Black Caucus in the 103^rd Congress. Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Bratton, Kathleen A., and Kerry L. Haynie. 1999. “Agenda Setting and Legislative Success in State Legislatures: The Effects of Gender and Race.” The Journal of Politics 61 (3): 658–679.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brock, Andre. 2012. “From the Blackhand Side: Twitter as a Cultural Conversation.” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 56 (4): 529–549.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, Nadia. 2014. Sisters in the Statehouse: Black Women and Legislative Decision Making. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, Nadia, and Kira Hudson Banks. 2014. “Black Women’s Agenda Setting in the Maryland State Legislature.” Journal of African American Studies 18 (2): 164–180.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, Nadia, and Sarah Gershon. 2016. “Intersectional Presentations: An Exploratory Study of Minority Congresswomen’s Websites’ Biographies.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 13 (1): 85–108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, Nadia E., Michael D. Minta, and Valeria Sinclair-Chapman. 2016. “Personal Narratives and Representation Strategies: Using C-SPAN Oral Histories to Examine key Concepts in Minority Representation.” In Exploring the C-SPAN Archives: Advancing the Research Agenda, 139–164. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Caliendo, Stephen M., and Charlton D. McIlwain. 2006. “Minority Candidates, Media Framing, and Racial Cues in the 2004 Election.” Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 11 (4): 45–69.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron, A. Colin, and Pravin K. Trivedi. 1986. “Econometric Models Based on Count Data. Comparisons and Applications of Some Estimators and Tests.” Journal of Applied Econometrics 1 (1): 29–53.
   Google Scholar
• Canon, David T. 1999. Race, Redistricting, and Representation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carney, Nikita. 2016. “All Lives Matter, but so Does Race: Black Lives Matter and the Evolving Role of Social Media.” Humanity and Society 40 (2): 180–199.
   Google Scholar
• Champagne, Richard A., and Leroy N. Rieselbach. 1995. “The Evolving Congressional Black Caucus: The Reagan-Bush Years. Blacks and the American Political System.” In Blacks and the American Political System, edited by Huey L. Perry, and Wayne Parent, 130–161. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.
   Google Scholar
• Clay, William L. 1993. Just Permanent Interests. New York: Amistad.
   Google Scholar
• Conway, Bethany Anne, Kate Kenski, and Di Wang. 2013. “Twitter Use by Presidential Candidates During the 2012 Campaign.” American Behavioral Scientist 57 (11): 1596–1610.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Couldry, Nick. 2012. Media, Society, World: Social Theory and Digital Media Practice. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
   Google Scholar
• Dancey, Logan, and Jasmine Masand. 2017. “Race and Representation on Twitter: Members of Congress’ Responses to the Deaths of Michael Brown and Eric Garner.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 1–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Della Porta, Donatella, and Lorenzo Mosca. 2005. “Global-net for Global Movements? A Network of Networks for a Movement of Movements.” Journal of Public Policy 25 (1): 165–190.
   Google Scholar
• Dellums, Ronald V. 2000. Lying Down with the Lions: A Public Life From the Streets of Oakland to the Halls of Power. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Druckman, James, Martin J. Kifer, and Michael Parkin. 2007. “The Technological Development of Congressional Candidate Web Sites: How and Why Candidates Use Web Innovations.” Social Science Computer Review 25 (4): 425–442.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Druckman, James, Martin J. Kifer, and Michael Parkin. 2010. “Timeless Strategy Meets New Medium: Going Negative On Congressional Campaign Web Sites, 2002-2006.” Political Communication 27: 88–103.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eltantawy, Nahed, and Julie B. Wiest. 2011. “The Arab Spring| Social Media in the Egyptian Revolution: Reconsidering Resource Mobilization Theory.” International Journal of Communication 5: 1207–1224.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Entman, Robert M. 1997. “Manufacturing Discord: Media in the Affirmative Action Debate.” Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 2 (4): 32–51.
   Google Scholar
• Fenno, Richard F. 1978. Home Style: House Members in Their Districts. New York: Harper Collins.
   Google Scholar
• Fenno, Richard F. 2003. Going Home: Black Representatives and Their Constituents. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fiorina, Morris P. 1973. “Electoral Margins, Constituency Influence, and Policy Moderation.” American Politics Quarterly 1 (4): 479–498.
   Google Scholar
• Florini, Sarah. 2014. “Tweets, Tweeps, and Signifyin’ Communication and Cultural Performance on “Black Twitter".” Television & New Media 15 (3): 223–237.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, Susannah, Kathryn Zickuhr, and Aaron Smith. 2009. Twitter and Status Updating. Pew Internet and American Life Project. http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2009/17-Twitter-and-Status-Updating.aspx.
   Google Scholar
• Franzosi, Roberto. 2008. “Content Analysis: Objective Systematic, and Quantitative Description of Content.” Content Analysis 1 (1): 21–49.
   Google Scholar
• Freelon, Deen, and Charlton McIlwain. 2016. Beyond the Hashtags: #Ferguson, #Blacklivesmatter, and the Online Struggle for Offline Justice.
   Google Scholar
• Frome, Edward L. 1983. “The Analysis of Rates Using Poisson Regression Models.” Biometrics 39 (3): 665–674.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamble, Katrina L. 2007. “Black Political Representation: An Examination of Legislative Activity Within U.S. House Committees.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 32: 421–447.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner, William, Edward P. Mulvey, and Esther C. Shaw. 1995. “Regression Analyses of Counts and Rates: Poisson, Overdispersed Poisson, and Negative Binomial Models.” Psychological Bulletin 118 (3): 392–404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garza, Alicia. 2014. “A Herstory of the #Blacklivesmatter Movement.” The Feminist Wire 7.
   Google Scholar
• Gates, Jr., Henry Louis. 1983. “The “Blackness of Blackness": A Critique of the Sign and the Signifying Monkey.” Critical Inquiry 9 (4): 685–723.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golbeck, Jennifer, Justin M. Grimes, and Anthony Rogers. 2010. “Twitter Use by the US Congress.” Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 61 (8): 1612–1621.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, Todd, Dan Jackson, and Marcel Broersma. 2014. “New Platform, Old Habits? Candidates’ Use of Twitter During the 2010 British and Dutch General Election Campaigns.” New Media & Society 18 (5): 765–783.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant, William J., Brenda Moon, and Janie Busby Grant. 2010. “Australian Politicians Use of The Social Network Tool Twitter.” Australian Journal of Political Science 45 (4): 579–604.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grose, Christian R. 2006. “Bridging the Divide: Interethnic Cooperation; Minority Media Outlets; and the Coverage of Latino, African-American, and Asian-American Members of Congress.” Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics 11 (4): 115–130.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grose, Christian R. 2011. Congress in Black and White: Race and Representation in Washington and at Home. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hancock, Ange-Marie. 2007. “When Multiplication Doesn't Equal Quick Addition: Examining Intersectionality as a Research Paradigm.” Perspectives on Politics 5 (1): 63–79.
   Google Scholar
• Hawkesworth, Mary. 2003. “Congressional Enactments of Race–Gender: Toward a Theory of Raced–Gendered Institutions.” American Political Science Review 97 (4): 529–550.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haynie, Kerry L. 2005. “African Americans and the New Politics of Inclusion: A Representational Dilemma?” In Congress Reconsidered, 8^th Edition, edited by Lawrence C. Dodd, and Bruce I. Oppenheimer, 395–401. Washington, DC: CQ Press.
   Google Scholar
• Henry, Charles. 1977. “Legitimizing Race in Congressional Politics.” American Politics Quarterly 5: 149–176.
   Google Scholar
• Hicks, Josh. 2013. Interesting Demographic Facts about the 113th Congress. The Washington Post.
   Google Scholar
• Hodges, Adam. 2015. “Ideologies of Language and Race in US Media Discourse About Trayvon Martin Shooting.” Language and Society 44: 401–423.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holsti, Ole R. 1969. Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Horrigan, John. 2009. Wireless Internet Use. Pew Internet and American Life Project. http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2009/12-Wireless-Internet-Use.aspx.
   Google Scholar
• Krippendorff, Klaus. 2004. “Reliability in Content Analysis.” Human Communication Research 30 (3): 411–433.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Langman, Lauren. 2005. “From Virtual Public Spheres to Global Justice: A Critical Theory of Networked Social Movements.” Sociological Theory 23 (1): 42–74.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lasswell, Harold. 1965. “Why Be Quantitative?” In Language of Politics: Studies in Quantitative Semantics, edited by Nathan Leites. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lawless, Jerald F. 1987. “Negative Binomial and Mixed Poisson Regression.” Canadian Journal of Statistics 15 (3): 209–225.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovejoy, Kristen, and Gregory D. Saxton. 2012. “Information, Community, and Action: How Nonprofit Organizations Use Social Media.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 17: 337–353.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manjoo, Farhod. 2010. How Black People Use Twitter: The Latest Research on Race and Microblogging. Slate.com.
   Google Scholar
• Mayhew, David. 1974. Congress: The Electoral Connection. New Haven: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• McCormick, Joseph, and Charles E. Jones. 1993. “The Conceptualization of Deracialization: Thinking Through the Dilemma.” In Dilemmas of Black Politics, edited by Georgia Persons, 66–84. New York: Harper Collins.
   Google Scholar
• Minta, Michael D. 2009. “Legislative Oversight and the Substantive Representation of Black and Latino Interests in Congress.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 34 (2): 193–218.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minta, Michael D. 2011. Oversight: Representing Black and Latino Interests in Congress. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Minta, Michael D., and Nadia E. Brown. 2014. “Intersecting Interests: Gender, Race, and Congressional Attention to Women’s Issues.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 11 (2): 253–272.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minta, Michael D., and Valeria Sinclair-Chapman. 2013. “Diversity in Political Institutions and Congressional Responsiveness to Minority Interests.” Political Research Quarterly 66 (1): 127–140.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell-Kernan, Claudia, and Gena Dagel Caponi. 1999. “Signifying, Loud-Talking and Marking.” In Signifyin (g), Sanctifin’, & Slam Dunking: A Reader in African-American Expressive Culture, 309–330. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nakamura, Lisa. 2008. Digitizing Race: Visual Culture and the Internet. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nunnally, Shayla C. 2012. Trust in Black America: Race, Discrimination, and Politics. New York, NY: NYU Press.
   Google Scholar
• O'Keeffe, Gwenn Schurgin, and Kathleen Clarke-Pearson. 2011. “The Impact of Social Media on Children, Adolescents, and Families.” Pediatrics 127 (4): 800–804.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orey, Byron D’Andra. 2006. “Deracialization or Racialization: The Making of a Black Mayor in Jackson, Mississippi.” Politics & Policy 34 (4): 814–836.
   Google Scholar
• Orey, Byron D'Andra, and Christopher W. Larimer. 2008. “The Role of Race, Gender, Party, and Structure in State Policymaking.” Journal of Race & Policy 4 (1): 22–33.
   Google Scholar
• Orey, Byron D’Andra, Wendy Smooth, Kimberly S. Adams, and Kisha Harris-Clark. 2007. “Race and Gender Matter: Refining Models of Legislative Policy Making in State Legislatures.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 28 (3-4): 97–119.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry, Huey. 1991. “Deracialization as an Analytical Construct in American Urban Politics.” Urban Affairs Quarterly 27 (2): 181–191.
   Google Scholar
• Peterson, Rolfe Daus. 2012. “To Tweet or Not to Tweet: Exploring the Determinants of Early Adoption of Twitter by House Members in the 111th Congress.” The Social Science Journal 49: 430–438.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Putnam, Robert D. 2001. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon and Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Rickford, Russell. 2016. “Black Lives Matter: Toward a Modern Practice of Mass Struggle.” New Labor Forum 25 (1): 34–42.
   Google Scholar
• Schmittel, Annelie, and Jimmy Sanderson. 2015. “Talking About Trayvon in 140 Characters: Exploring NFL Players’ Tweets About the George Zimmerman Verdict.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 39 (4): 332–345.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulz, James H., and Robert H. Binstock. 2008. Aging Nation: The Economics and Politics of Growing Older in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sharma, Sanjay. 2013. “Black Twitter? Racial Hashtags, Networks and Contagion.” New Formations: A Journal of Culture/Theory/Politics 78 (1): 46–64.
   Google Scholar
• Shogan, Colleen. 2010. “Blackberries, Tweets, and YouTube: Technology and the Future of Communicating with Congress.” PS: Political Science and Politics 43 (2): 231–233.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simien, Evelyn M. 2006. Black Feminist Voices in Politics. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sinclair-Chapman, Valeria. 2002. Symbols and Substance: How Black Constituents are Collectively Represented in the United States Congress through Roll-Call Voting and Bill Sponsorship. Ph.D. Dissertation. The Ohio State University.
   Google Scholar
• Singh, Robert. 1998. The Congressional Black Caucus: Racial Politics in the U.S. Congress. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, Robert C. 1981. “The Black Congressional Delegation.” Western Political Quarterly 34: 203–221.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, Aaron. 2010. Mobile access 2010. Pew Internet and American Life Project. http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2010/Mobile-Access-2010.aspx.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, Aaron. 2014. “African Americans and Technology Use: A Demographic Portrait.” Pew Research Center. http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/01/06/african-americans-and-technology-use/.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, Aaron, and Joanna Brenner. 2012. Twitter Use in 2012. Pew Internet and American Life Project. http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2012/Twitter-Use-2012.aspx.
   Google Scholar
• Smooth, Wendy. 2006. “Intersectionality in Electoral Politics: A Mess Worth Making.” Politics & Gender 2 (3): 400–414.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smooth, Wendy. 2008. “Gender, Race, and the Exercise of Power and Influence.” In Legislative Women: Getting Elected, Getting Ahead, edited by Beth Reingold, 175–196. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Smooth, Wendy. 2011. “Standing for Women? Which Women? The Substantive Representation of Women's Interests and the Research Imperative of Intersectionality.” Politics & Gender 7 (3): 436–441.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan, John, and Eric M. Uslaner. 1978. “Congressional Behavior and Electoral Marginality.” American Journal of Political Science 22 (3): 536–553.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swain, Carol Miller. 1995. Black Faces, Black Interests: The Representation of African Americans in Congress. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tate, Katherine. 2001. “The Political Representation of Blacks in Congress: Does Race Matter?” Legislative Studies Quarterly 26 (4): 623–638.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tate, Katherine. 2003. Black Faces in the Mirror: African Americans and Their Representatives in the US Congress. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tate, Katherine. 2014. Concordance: Black Lawmaking in the U.S. Congress From Carter to Obama. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, Keeanga-Yamahtta. 2016. From# BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books.
   Google Scholar
• Tillery, Jr., Alvin B. 2006. “Foreign Policy Activism and Power in the House of Representatives: Black Members of Congress and South Africa, 1968-1986.” Studies in American Political Development 20 (1): 88–103.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tillery, Jr., Alvin B. 2011. Between Homeland and Motherland: Africa, US Foreign Policy and Black Leadership in America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tillery Jr, Alvin B. 1999. ““Black Americans and the Creation of America's Africa Policies: The De-Racialization of Pan-African Politics.” In The African Diaspora: African Origins and New World Identities, edited by Isidore Okpewho, Carole Boyce-Davies, and Ali A. Mazrui, 504–524. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Towner, Terri L., and David A. Dulio. 2012. “New Media and Political Marketing in the United States: 2012 and Beyond.” Journal of Political Marketing 11 (1-2): 95–119.
   Google Scholar
• Van Dijck, Jose. 2013. The Culture of Connectivity: A Critical History of Social Media. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Whitby, Kenny J. 2000. The Color of Representation: Congressional Behavior and Black Interests. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
   Google Scholar
• Whitby, Kenny J. 2007. “Dimensions of Representation and the Congressional Black Caucus.” In African American Perspectives on Political Science, edited by Wilbur C. Rich, 195–211. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wright, Sharon. 1996. “The Deracialization Strategy and African American Candidates in Memphis Mayoral Elections.” In Race, Politics and Governance in the United States, edited by Huey Perry, 151–164. Gainesville: University of Florida Press.
   Google Scholar