Hindu–Muslim violence in unexpected places: theory and evidence from rural India

References

• Ahmed, Hilal. 2014. “Muslims in Uttar Pradesh: Caste, Class and Electoral Politics.” Economic & Political Weekly 49 (18): 1–5.
   Google Scholar
• Anand, Dibyesh. 2005. “The Violence of Security: Hindu Nationalism and the Politics of Representing ‘the Muslim’ as a Danger.” The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 94 (379): 203–215. doi: 10.1080/00358530500099076
   Google Scholar
• Anand, Panini. 2013. “Sense of a riot.” Outlook, September 23.
   Google Scholar
• Banerjee, Abhijit, Donald Green, Jeffrey McManus, and Rohini Pande. 2014. “Are Poor Voters Indifferent to Whether Elected Leaders Are Criminal or Corrupt? A Vignette Experiment in Rural India.” Political Communication 31 (3): 391–407. doi: 10.1080/10584609.2014.914615
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berenschot, Ward. 2011. Riot Politics: Hindu–Muslim Violence and the Indian State. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Berenschot, Ward. 2014. “Muzaffarnagar Riots: Perils of a Patronage Democracy.” Economic & Political Weekly 49 (12): 15–18.
   Google Scholar
• Bhan, Rohit. 2017. “‘5,000-Strong Crowd Came with Pistols, Weapons’: A Gujarat Village, Seared.” NDTV, March 28.
   Google Scholar
• Bhatt, Virendra Nath. 2013. “The List of Communal Riots Under CM Akhilesh Yadav.” Tehelka, September 11.
   Google Scholar
• Brass, Paul. 1997. Theft of an Idol: Text and Context in the Representation of Collective Violence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brass, Paul. 2003. The Production of Hindu–Muslim Violence in Contemporary India. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brass, Paul. 2004. “Development of an Institutionalised Riot System in Meerut City, 1961 to 1982.” Economic & Political Weekly 39 (44): 4839–4848.
   Google Scholar
• Brass, Paul. 2006. Forms of Collective Violence: Riots, Pogroms, and Genocide in Modern India. New Delhi, Delhi: Three Essays Collective.
   Google Scholar
• “Dange ka daavaanal abhi bhi bekaabu, ab tak 36 ki maut.” [The wildfire of the riot is still uncontrollable, 36 killed until now.] Dainik Jagran, September 10, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Deshpande, J. V. 1993. “Assembly Elections: Winnability is All.” Economic & Political Weekly 28 (46–47): 2505.
   Google Scholar
• Devasher, Madhavi. 2014. “Masjid Versus Mandal: Ethnic Voting in India.” PhD diss., Yale University.
   Google Scholar
• Dhattiwala, Raheel, and Michael Biggs. 2012. “The Political Logic of Ethnic Violence: The Anti- Muslim Pogrom in Gujarat, 2002.” Politics & Society 40 (4): 483–516. doi: 10.1177/0032329212461125
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dhattiwala, Raheel. 2016 The Ecology of Ethnic Violence: Attacks on Muslims of Ahmedabad in 2002.” Qualitative Sociology 39 (1): 71–95. doi: 10.1007/s11133-015-9320-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engineer, Asghar Ali. 2005. “Communal Riots, 2004.” Economic & Political Weekly 40 (6): 517–520.
   Google Scholar
• Goswami, Dev. 2017. “Rajasthan: Muslim Man Killed by Cow Vigilantes in Alwar, Attack Caught on Cam.” India Today, April 5.
   Google Scholar
• Gottlieb, Jessica. 2016. “Greater Expectations? A Field Experiment to Improve Accountability in Mali.” American Journal of Political Science 60 (1): 143–157. doi: 10.1111/ajps.12186
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Government of Uttar Pradesh. 2013a. “Affidavit by the Home Secretary, Govt of UP in Mohd Haroon & Ors. vs Union of India & Another Writ Petition (Criminal) No. 155 of 2013 and connected matters.” Supreme Court of India, October 17, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Government of Uttar Pradesh. 2013b. “First Information Report, Shahpur Police Station, Budhana Sub-District, Muzaffarnagar District.” September 7, 2013. Accessed 3 January, 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Government of Uttar Pradesh. 2014. “Details of Financial Assistance Provided in Various Forms Before the Honorable Supreme Court’s Decision of March 26, 2014.” Accessed 3 January, 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Gutiérrez-Romero, Roxana and Adrienne LeBas. 2016. “Does Electoral Violence Affect Voting Choice and Willingness to Vote?” Working paper, University of Oxford.
   Google Scholar
• Hansen, Thomas. 2019. “Democracy Against the Law: Reflections on India’s Illiberal Democracy.” In Majoritarian State: How Hindu Nationalism is Changing India, edited by Angana Chatterji, Thomas Hansen, and Christophe Jaffrelot, 19–40. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hickman, John. 2009. “Is Electoral Violence Effective? Evidence from Sri Lanka’s 2005 Presidential Election.” Contemporary South Asia 17 (4): 429–435. doi: 10.1080/09584930903275918
   Google Scholar
• Horowitz, Donald. 2001. The Deadly Ethnic Riot. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Iyer, Sriya, and Anand Shrivastava. 2018. “Religious Riots and Electoral Politics in India.” Journal of Development Economics 131: 104–122. doi: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2017.11.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaffrelot, Christophe. 2003. “Communal Riots in Gujarat: The State at Risk?” Working Paper. University of Heidelberg.
   Google Scholar
• Jaffrelot, Christophe. 2019. “A De-Facto Ethnic Democracy? Obliterating and Targeting the Other, Hindu Vigilantes, and the Ethno-State.” In Majoritarian State: How Hindu Nationalism is Changing India, edited by Angana Chatterji, Thomas Hansen, and Christophe Jaffrelot, 41–68. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jain, Bharti. 2013. “Government Releases Data of Riot Victims Identifying Religion.” The Times of India, September 24.
   Google Scholar
• Jain, Sreenivasan, and Niha Masih. 2014. “Muzaffarnagar: The ‘Riot’ Men for the Job.” NDTV, April 3.
   Google Scholar
• Janhastakshep. 2015. “Mob Lynching in Dadri.” Economic and Political Weekly 50 (42): 83–87.
   Google Scholar
• Khan, Atiq. 2014. “Wooing Muslims, BSP Says Mayawati Alone Can Tame BJP.” The Hindu, April 4.
   Google Scholar
• Khyati, Surbhi. 2016. “Communal Riots of Muzaffarnagar-Shamli, 2013: Institutionalized Riots System, Majoritarian Politics and Human Insecurity of the ‘Minority’ Community in the Region.” Paper presented at the Annual ISA Asia-Pacific Region Conference, Hong Kong, June 25–27.
   Google Scholar
• Kirpal, Raman. 2013. “Muzaffarnagar Riots: How the BJP, SP and BSP Fanned the Flames” Firstpost, September 16.
   Google Scholar
• Klašnja, Marko, Noam Lupu, and Joshua Tucker. 2017. “When Do Voters Sanction Corrupt Politicians?” Working paper, Georgetown University.
   Google Scholar
• Kriger, Norma. 2005. “ZANU (PF) Strategies in General Elections, 1980–2000: Discourse and Coercion.” African Affairs 104 (414): 1–34. doi: 10.1093/afraf/adi016
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malik, Aditi. 2018. “Constitutional Reform and New Patterns of Electoral Violence: Evidence from Kenya’s 2013 Elections.” Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 56 (3): 340–359. doi: 10.1080/14662043.2017.1421036
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mares, Isabela, and Lauren Young. 2016. “Do Voters Punish Electoral Malfeasance?” Working Paper, Columbia University.
   Google Scholar
• Mody, Anjali. 2014. “A Separation: How the Muzaffarnagar Riots Tore a Village Apart.” The Caravan, March 1.
   Google Scholar
• “Muzaffarnagar danga: Suraksha balo ki maujoodgi ke baavajood hui hinsa.” [Muzaffarnagar riot: Violence Occurred Despite Security Agents’ Presence.] Amar Ujala, September 10, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Muzaffarnagar District Hospital. 2013. “Emergency Wing Record.” August 1–September 30, 2013. Accessed 14 October, 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Naqvi, Saba. 2013. “Masjid Is Far: Why Banking on Hindu–Muslim Polarization Is a Folly.” Outlook, August 19.
   Google Scholar
• Nellis, Gareth, Michael Weaver, and Steven Rosenzweig. 2016. “Do Parties Matter for Ethnic Violence? Evidence From India.” Quarterly Journal of Political Science 11 (3): 249–277. doi: 10.1561/100.00015051
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pai, Sudha. 2014a. “Understanding the Defeat of the BSP in Uttar Pradesh: National Election 2014.” Studies in Indian Politics 2 (2): 153–167. doi: 10.1177/2321023014551872
   Google Scholar
• Pai, Sudha. 2014b. “Uttar Pradesh: Competitive Communalism Once Again.” Economic & Political Weekly 49 (15): 16–19.
   Google Scholar
• Raghuvanshi, Umesh. 2015. “Speeches, Video by Sangeet Som, Rana Fuelled Muzaffarnagar Riots.” Hindustan Times, October 14.
   Google Scholar
• Raina, Pamposh. 2013. “A Village in Muzaffarnagar Recounts Rape and Murder.” The New York Times, September 30.
   Google Scholar
• Rajalakshmi, T. K. 2014. “Losing His Fiefdom.” The Frontline, May 2.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenzweig, Steven. 2017. “Dangerous Disconnect: Voter Backlash, Elite Misperception, and the Costs of Violence as an Electoral Tactic.” Working paper, Boston University.
   Google Scholar
• Saha, Santosh. 2004. “Hindu Revivalist Cultural Policies and Programs in India: A Critique.” In Religious Fundamentalism in the Contemporary World: Critical Society and Political Issues, edited by Santosh Saha, 127–169. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
   Google Scholar
• Sahu, Manish. 2017. “Violence in Sambhal: Attacked, their Homes Destroyed, 9 Muslim Families Leave UP Village.” The Indian Express, May 13
   Google Scholar
• Sawhney, Nakul Singh. 2015. Muzaffarnagar Baaqi Hai. [Muzaffarnagar is Left]. Directed by Nakul Singh Sawhney.
   Google Scholar
• “SC Says UP Government Was Negligent in Preventing Muzaffarnagar Riots.” Human Rights Law Network, 2014. Accessed September 9, 2017. http://www.hrln.org/hrln/component/content/content/article/198-up-communal-riots/1504-sc-says-up-government-was-negligent-in-preventing-muzaffarnagar-riots.html
   Google Scholar
• Sharma, Aman. 2019. “Yogi Government Withdraws 75 Cases Related to Muzaffarnagar Riots.” The Economic Times, July 25.
   Google Scholar
• Sharma, Betwa. 2014. “A Village Takes Small Steps Towards Reconciliation after Muzaffarnagar Riots.” The New York Times, January 16.
   Google Scholar
• Singh, Pragya. 2013. “Time Line: Those days in August and September.” Outlook, November 29.
   Google Scholar
• Stokes, Susan. 2005. “Perverse Accountability: A Formal Model of Machine Politics with Evidence from Argentina.” American Political Science Review 99 (3): 315–325. doi: 10.1017/S0003055405051683
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suresh, Appu Esthose. 2016. “Inside the Riot Machine: Anatomy of a Riot.” The Hindustan Times, October 17.
   Google Scholar
• Susewind, Raphael, and Raheel Dhattiwala. 2014. “Spatial Variation in the ‘Muslim Vote’ in Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, 2014.” International Quarterly for Asian Studies 45 (3–4): 353–381.
   Google Scholar
• Ticku, Rohit. 2015. “Riot Rewards? Study of BJP’s Electoral Performance and Hindu–Muslim Riots.” Working paper, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Varshney, Ashutosh. 2002. Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Varshney, Ashutosh. 2013. “A Strange Fire.” The Indian Express, September 20.
   Google Scholar
• Verma, A. K. 2002. “UP Assembly Elections: Caste Dominates Ideology.” Economic & Political Weekly 37 (21): 1975–1980.
   Google Scholar
• Wilkinson, Steven. 2004. Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Riots in India. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wilkinson, Steven. 2008. “Which Group Identities Lead to Most Violence? Evidence from India.” In Order, Conflict, and Violence, edited by Stathis N. Kalyvas, Ian Shapiro, and Tarek Masoud, 271–300. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar