Cultural attributions for racial inequality

References

• Anderson, Elijah. 2000. Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City. New York: WW Norton.
   Google Scholar
• Applebaum, Lauren D. 2001. “The Influence of Perceived Deservingness on Policy Decisions Regarding Aid to the Poor.” Political Psychology 22 (3): 419–442.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett, Robert M., Lisa Raiz, and Tamara S. Davis. 2016. “Development and Validation of the Poverty Attributions Survey.” Journal of Social Work Education 52 (3): 347–359.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berinsky, Adam J. 2004. “Can We Talk? Self-Presentation and the Survey Response.” Political Psychology 25 (4): 643–659.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biden, Joe. 2021. “Remarks by President Biden Commemorating the 100th Anniversary of the Tulsa Race Massacre.” The White House. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2021/06/02/remarks-by-president-biden-commemorating-the-100th-anniversary-of-the-tulsa-race-massacre/. June 2, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Bishop, Bill. 1994. “Blame Game and the Culture of Poverty.” St. Louis Post-Dispatch. December 28.
   Google Scholar
• Bobo, Lawrence, and Camille Charles. 2009. “Race in the American Mind: From the Moynihan Report to the Obama Candidacy.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 621 (1): 243–259.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bobo, Lawrence, and Vincent L. Hutchings. 1996. “Perceptions of Racial Group Competition: Extending Blumer’s Theory of Group Position to a Multiracial Social Context.” American Sociological Review 61 (6): 951–972.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bobo, Lawrence, and James R. Kluegel. 1993. “Opposition to Race-targeting: Self-Interest, Stratification Ideology, or Racial Attitudes?” American Sociological Review 58 (4): 443.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bobo, Lawrence, James R. Kluegel, and Ryan A. Smith. 1997. “Laissez-Faire Racism: The Crystallization of a Kinder, Gentler, Antiblack Ideology.” Racial Attitudes in the 1990s: Continuity and Change 15: 23–25.
   Google Scholar
• Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2017. Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America. 5th ed. Latham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
   Google Scholar
• Brooks, David. 2015. New York Times. “The Nature of Poverty.” https://search.proquest.com/docview/1712365542.
   Google Scholar
• Bullock, Heather E. 2004. “From the Front Lines of Welfare Reform: An Analysis of Social Worker and Welfare Recipient Attitudes.” The Journal of Social Psychology 144 (6): 571–590.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bullock, Heather E., Wendy R. Williams, and Wendy M. Limbert. 2003. “Predicting Support for Welfare Policies: The Impact of Attributions and Beliefs About Inequality.” Journal of Poverty 7 (3): 35–56.
   Google Scholar
• Carroll, Joseph, John A. Johnson, Catherine Salmon, Jens Kjeldgaard-Christiansen, Mathias Clasen, and Emelie Jonsson. 2017. “A Cross-Disciplinary Survey of Beliefs About Human Nature, Culture, and Science.” Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture 1 (1): 1–32.
   Google Scholar
• Carroll, John S., William T. Perkowitz, Arthur J. Lurigio, and Frances M. Weaver. 1987. “Sentencing Goals, Causal Attributions, Ideology, and Personality.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52 (1): 107–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carville, James. 1996. We’re Right, They’re Wrong: A Handbook for Spirited Progressives. New York: Random House: Simon & Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Cassese, Erin, and Christopher Weber. 2011. “Emotion, Attribution, and Attitudes Toward Crime.” Journal of Integrated Social Sciences 2 (1): 63–97.
   Google Scholar
• Charles, Maria. 2008. “Culture and Inequality: Identity, Ideology, and Difference in ‘Postascriptive Society’.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 619 (1): 41–58.
   Google Scholar
• Chong, Dennis, and James N. Druckman. 2007. “Framing Theory.” Annual Review of Political Science 10 (1): 103–126.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clawson, Rosalee A. 1996. “Social Groups and Socio-Cultural Explanations in American Public Opinion.” PhD Thesis. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1487935573773662.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, Patricia. 2010. International Herald Tribune. “Why Are the Poor Poor, and Whose Fault Is It? The ‘Culture of Poverty,’ a Theory from the ‘60s, Is Reconsidered in U.S.”.
   Google Scholar
• Cozzarelli, Catherine, Anna V. Wilkinson, and Michael J. Tagler. 2001. “Attitudes Toward the Poor and Attributions for Poverty.” Journal of Social Issues 57 (2): 207–227.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Creighton, Mathew J., and Kevin H. Wozniak. 2019. “Are Racial and Educational Inequities in Mass Incarceration Perceived to Be a Social Problem? Results from an Experiment.” Social Problems 66 (4): 485–502.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delli Carpini, Michael X, and Scott Keeter. 1996. What Americans Know About Politics and Why It Matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• DeVellis, Robert F., and Carolyn T. Thorpe. 2021. Scale Development: Theory and Applications. 5. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Drakulich, Kevin M. 2015. “Explicit and Hidden Racial Bias in the Framing of Social Problems.” Social Problems 62 (3): 391–418.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellsworth, Phoebe C., and Samuel R. Gross. 1994. “Hardening of the Attitudes: Americans’ Views on the Death Penalty.” Journal of Social Issues 50 (2): 19–52.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgoudi, Marianthi. 1985. “Dialectics in Attribution Research: A Reevaluation of the Dispositional-Situational Causal Dichotomy.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49 (6): 1678–1691.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilens, Martin. 1995. “Racial Attitudes and Opposition to Welfare.” The Journal of Politics 57 (4): 994–1014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez, Brad T., and J. Matthew Wilson. 2006a. “Cognitive Heterogeneity and Economic Voting: A Comparative Analysis of Four Democratic Electorates.” American Journal of Political Science 50 (1): 127–145.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gomez, Brad T., and J. Matthew Wilson. 2006b. “Rethinking Symbolic Racism: Evidence of Attribution Bias.” The Journal of Politics 68 (3): 611–625.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, Donald Philip, and Jack Citrin. 1994. “Measurement Error and the Structure of Attitudes: Are Positive and Negative Judgments Opposites?” American Journal of Political Science 38 (1): 256–281.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, Eva G. T., Christian Staerklé, and David O. Sears. 2006. “Symbolic Racism and Whites’ Attitudes Towards Punitive and Preventive Crime Policies.” Law and Human Behavior 30 (4): 435–454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkins, Darnell F. 1981. “Causal Attribution and Punishment for Crime.” Deviant Behavior 2 (3): 207–230.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Homan, Patricia, Lauren Valentino, and Emi Weed. 2017. “Being and Becoming Poor: How Cultural Schemas Shape Beliefs About Poverty.” Social Forces 95 (3): 1023–1048.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopkins, Daniel J. 2009. “Partisan Reinforcement and the Poor: The Impact of Context on Explanations for Poverty.” Social Science Quarterly 90 (3): 744–764.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huddy, Leonie, and Stanley Feldman. 2009. “On Assessing the Political Effects of Racial Prejudice.” Annual Review of Political Science 12: 423–447.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, Michael, and Steven A. Tuch. 2000. “How Beliefs About Poverty Influence Racial Policy Attitudes: A Study of Whites, African Americans, Hispanics, and Asians in the United States.” In Racialized Politics: The Debate About Racism in America, edited by David O. Sears, Jim Sidanius, and Lawrence Bobo, 165–190. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hunt, Matthew O. 2007. “African American, Hispanic, and White Beliefs About Black/White Inequality, 1977-2004.” American Sociological Review 72 (3): 390–415.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurwitz, Jon, and Mark Peffley. 1997. “Public Perceptions of Race and Crime: The Role of Racial Stereotypes.” American Journal of Political Science 41 (2): 375–401.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, Devon. 2007. “Crime Salience, Perceived Racial Bias, and Blacks’ Punitive Attitudes.” Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 4 (4): 1–18.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, Devon. 2008. “Racial Prejudice, Perceived Injustice, and the Black-White Gap in Punitive Attitudes.” Journal of Criminal Justice 36 (2): 198–206.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joslyn, Mark R., and Donald P. Haider-Markel. 2013. “The Politics of Causes: Mass Shootings and the Cases of the Virginia Tech and Tucson Tragedies: The Politics of Causes.” Social Science Quarterly 94 (2): 410–423.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kam, Cindy D., and Camille D. Burge. 2018. “Uncovering Reactions to the Racial Resentment Scale Across the Racial Divide.” The Journal of Politics 80 (1): 314–320.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz, Irwin, and R. Glen Hass. 1988. “Racial Ambivalence and American Value Conflict: Correlational and Priming Studies of Dual Cognitive Structures.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (6): 893.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kinder, Donald R., and Lynn M. Sanders. 1996. Divided by Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kluegel, James R. 1990. “Trends in Whites’ Explanations of the Black-White Gap in Socioeconomic Status, 1977-1989.” American Sociological Review 55: 512–525.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kluegel, James R., and Lawrence Bobo. 1993. “Dimensions of Whites’ Beliefs About the Black-White Socioeconomic Gap.” In Prejudice, Politics, and the American Dilemma, edited by Paul M. Sniderman, Philip E. Tetlock, and Edward G. Carmines, 127–147. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kluegel, James R., and Eliot R. Smith. 1986. Beliefs About Inequality: Americans’ Views of What Is and What Ought to Be. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
   Google Scholar
• Knight, Kathleen. 1998. “In Their Own Words: Citizens’ Explanations of Inequality Between the Races.” In Perception and Prejudice: Race and Politics in the United States, edited by Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, 202–232. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Krosnick, Jon A., Sowmya Narayan, and Wendy R. Smith. 1996. “Satisficing in Surveys: Initial Evidence.” New Directions for Evaluation 1996 (70): 29–44.
   Google Scholar
• Krysan, M. 2000. “Prejudice, Politics, and Public Opinion: Understanding the Sources of Racial Policy Attitudes.” Annual Review of Sociology 26: 135–168.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lecheler, Sophie, and Claes H. De Vreese. 2019. News Framing Effects: Theory and Practice. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Lepianka, Dorota, Wim Van Oorschot, and John Gelissen. 2009. “Popular Explanations of Poverty: A Critical Discussion of Empirical Research.” Journal of Social Policy 38 (3): 421–438.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendelberg, Tali. 2001. The Race Card: Campaign Strategy, Implicit Messages, and the Norm of Equality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mijs, Jonathan J. B. 2018. “Inequality Is a Problem of Inference: How People Solve the Social Puzzle of Unequal Outcomes.” Societies 8 (3): 64–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moss, Khalid. 2005. Dayton Daily News. “Think Tank Targets Violence”.
   Google Scholar
• Moynihan, Daniel Patrick. 1965. The Negro Family: The Case for National Action. Washington, DC: Office of Policy Planning and Research, U.S. Department of Labor.
   Google Scholar
• Mullinix, Kevin J., and Robert J. Norris. 2018. “Pulled-Over Rates, Causal Attributions, and Trust in Police.” Political Research Quarterly 72 (2): 420–434.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NBC News. 2013. Fox’s Bill O’Reilly Loses It When Talking about Race. http://www.nbcnews.com/video/all-in-/52559880.
   Google Scholar
• Nelson, Thomas E. 1999. “Group Affect and Attribution in Social Policy Opinion.” The Journal of Politics 61 (2): 331–362.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, Thomas E., and Donald R. Kinder. 1996. “Issue Frames and Group-Centrism in American Public Opinion.” The Journal of Politics 58 (4): 1055–1078.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, Thomas E., and Zoe M. Oxley. 1999. “Issue Framing Effects on Belief Importance and Opinion.” The Journal of Politics 61 (4): 1040–1067.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patterson, Orlando. 2014. “How Sociologists Made Themselves Irrelevant.” The Chronicle of Higher Education 61 (14): B4.
   Google Scholar
• Patterson, Orlando. 2015. “The Real Problem With America's Inner Cities.” New York Times. May 9.
   Google Scholar
• Patterson, Orlando, and Ethan Fosse. 2015. The Cultural Matrix: Understanding Black Youth. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Peffley, Mark, and Jon Hurwitz. 2002. “The Racial Components of ‘Race-Neutral’ Crime Policy Attitudes.” Political Psychology 23 (1): 59–75.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peffley, Mark, and Jon Hurwitz. 2007. “Persuasion and Resistance: Race and the Death Penalty in America.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (4): 996–1012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peffley, Mark, Jon Hurwitz, and Jeffery Mondak. 2017. “Racial Attributions in the Justice System and Support for Punitive Crime Policies.” American Politics Research 45 (6): 1032–1058.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew, T. F., and R. W. Meertens. 1995. “Subtle and Blatant Prejudice in Western Europe.” European Journal of Social Psychology 25 (1): 57–75.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pew Research Center. 2007. Optimism about Black Progress Declines: Blacks See Growing Values Gap Between Poor and Middle Class. https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2007/11/13/blacks-see-growing-values-gap-between-poor-and-middle-class/.
   Google Scholar
• Pew Research Center. 2016. On Views of Race and Inequality, Blacks and Whites Are Worlds Apart. ProQuest. https://search.proquest.com/docview/2256979582.
   Google Scholar
• Pickett, Justin T., Ted Chiricos, Kristin M. Golden, and Marc Gertz. 2012. “Reconsidering the Relationship Between Perceived Neighborhood Racial Composition and Whites’ Perceptions of Victimization Risk: Do Racial Stereotypes Matter?” Criminology; An interdisciplinary Journal 50 (1): 145–186.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pickett, Justin T., and Stephanie Bontrager Ryon. 2017. “Race, Criminal Injustice Frames, and the Legitimation of Carceral Inequality as a Social Problem.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 14 (02): 577–602.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, Frederick D. 1996. “The Atlanta Journal and Constitution.” I’ll Weep for Shakur: Another Victim of the Culture of Black Deviancy. https://search.proquest.com/docview/293161063.
   Google Scholar
• Sahar, Gail. 2014. “On the Importance of Attribution Theory in Political Psychology.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 8 (5): 229–249.
   Google Scholar
• Sanneh, Kelefa. 2015. “Don’t Be Like That.” New Yorker 90 (47): 62–68.
   Google Scholar
• Schnell, Rainer, and Kathrin Thomas. 2021. “A Meta-Analysis of Studies on the Performance of the Crosswise Model.” Sociological Methods & Research 1–26.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sestanovich, Clare. 2014. “Black Culture and Progressivism.” The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/04/black-culture-and-progressivism/360362/, April 22, 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Shelton, Jason E. 2017. “A Dream Deferred?: Privileged Blacks’ and Whites’ Beliefs About Racial Inequality.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 14 (1): 73–91.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, Kevin B., and Lorene H. Stone. 1989. “Rags, Riches, and Bootstraps: Beliefs About the Causes of Wealth and Poverty.” The Sociological Quarterly 30 (1): 93–107.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sniderman, Paul M., and Michael Gray Hagen. 1985. Race and Inequality. Chatham, NJ: Chatham House Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Sniderman, Paul M., and Thomas Leonard Piazza. 1993. The Scar of Race. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Snyder, Mark, and Steve Gangestad. 1986. “On the Nature of Self-Monitoring: Matters of Assessment, Matters of Validity..” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51 (1): 125–139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, Eric A., and Ronald L. Simons. 2010. “Race, Code of the Street, and Violent Delinquency: A Multilevel Investigation of Neighborhood Street Culture and Individual Norms of Violence.” Criminology; An interdisciplinary Journal 48 (2): 569–605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tagler, Michael J., and Catherine Cozzarelli. 2013. “Feelings Toward the Poor and Beliefs About the Causes of Poverty: The Role of Affective-Cognitive Consistency in Help-Giving.” The Journal of Psychology 147 (6): 517–539.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarman, Christopher, and David O. Sears. 2005. “The Conceptualization and Measurement of Symbolic Racism.” The Journal of Politics 67 (3): 731–761.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuch, Steven A., and Michael Hughes. 1996. “Whites’ Racial Policy Attitudes.” Social Science Quarterly 77 (4): 723–745.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unnever, James D. 2008. “Two Worlds Far Apart: Black-White Differences in Beliefs About Why African-American Mean Are Disproportionately Imprisoned.” Criminology; An interdisciplinary Journal 46 (2): 511–538.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Unnever, James D., John K. Cochran, Francis T. Cullen, and Brandon K. Applegate. 2010. “The Pragmatic American: Attributions of Crime and the Hydraulic Relation Hypothesis.” Justice Quarterly 27 (3): 431–457.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walton, Hanes, Robert C. Smith, and Sherri L. Wallace. 2020. American Politics and the African American Quest for Universal Freedom. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Weiner, Bernard, Danny Osborne, and Udo Rudolph. 2011. “An Attributional Analysis of Reactions to Poverty: The Political Ideology of the Giver and the Perceived Morality of the Receiver.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 15 (2): 199–213.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• West, Cornel. 1994. Race Matters. New York: Vintage Books.
   Google Scholar
• Wheelock, Darren, Pamela Wald, and Yakov Shchukin. 2012. “Managing the Socially Marginalized: Attitudes Toward Welfare, Punishment, and Race.” Journal of Poverty 16 (1): 1–26.
   Google Scholar
• Will, George. 2014. “A Half Century in Denial About Poverty.” The Denver Post.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, William J. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged. 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: Univ. of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wilson, William J. 2010. More Than Just Race. New York: Norton.
   Google Scholar
• Zaller, John. 1992. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar