References
- Allen, Richard L., Michael C. Dawson, and Ronald E. Brown. 1989. “A Schema-Based Approach to Modeling an African-American Racial Belief System.” American Political Science Review 83 (2): 421–441. https://doi.org/10.2307/1962398.
- Besco, Randy, and J. Scott Matthews. 2022. “Racial Spillover in Political Attitudes: Generalizing to a New Leader and Context.” Political Behavior, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-022-09777-3.
- Brooks, Clem, and David Brady. 1999. “Income, Economic Voting, and Long-Term Political Change in the U.S., 1952-1996.” Social Forces 77 (4): 1339–1375.
- Brown-Dean, Khalilah L. 2019. Identity Politics in the United States. Medford, MA: Polity Press.
- Bush, Daniel. 2020. “Inside the Trump campaign’s strategy for getting Black voters to the polls.” PBS. July 7. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/how-the-trump-campaign-hopes-to-boost-black-voter-turnout.
- Capers, Juree, and Candis Watts Smith. 2016. “Straddling Identities: Identity Cross-Pressures on Black Immigrants’ Policy Preferences*.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 4 (3): 393–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2015.1112823.
- Carmines, Edward G., Paul M. Sniderman, and Beth C. Easter. 2011. “On the Meaning, Measurement, and Implications of Racial Resentment.” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 634 (1): 98–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716210387499.
- Cassese, Erin C., Tiffany D. Barnes, and Regina P. Branton. 2015. “Racializing Gender: Public Opinion at the Intersection.” Politics & Gender 11 (1): 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X14000567.
- Cepuran, Colin J. G., and Justin Berry. 2022. “Whites’ Racial Resentment and Perceived Relative Discrimination Interactively Predict Participation.” Political Behavior 44 (2): 1003–1024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-022-09786-2.
- Chong, Dennis, and Reuel Rogers. 2005. “Racial Solidarity and Political Participation.” Political Behavior 27 (4): 347–374. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-005-5880-5.
- Cole, Devan. 2019. “Elizabeth Warren: Trump is a white supremacist.” CNN, August 8. https://edition.cnn.com/2019/08/08/politics/elizabeth-warren-donald-trump-white-supremacist/index.html.
- Collins, Sean. 2020. “Trump made gains with Black voters in some states. Here’s why.” Vox, November 4. https://www.vox.com/2020/11/4/21537966/trump-black-voters-exit-polls.
- Dawson, Michael C. 1994. Behind the Mule: Race and Class in African-American Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Dent, David. 2020. “More Black Men Went With Trump This Time. I Asked a Few of Them Why.” Daily Beast. November 24. https://www.thedailybeast.com/more-black-men-went-with-trump-this-time-i-asked-a-few-of-them-why.
- DeSante, Christopher D. 2013. “Working Twice as Hard to Get Half as Far: Race, Work Ethic, and America’s Deserving Poor.” American Journal of Political Science 57 (2): 342–356. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12006.
- Dowe, Pearl K. Ford. 2020. “Resisting Marginalization: Black Women’s Political Ambition and Agency.” PS: Political Science & Politics 53 (4): 697–702. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096520000554.
- Edwards, Adrienne L. 2022. “(Re)Conceptualizing Black Motherwork as Political Activism.” Journal of Family Theory & Review 14 (3): 404–411.
- Fiorina, Morris. 1981. Retrospective Voting in American National Elections. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
- Fisher, Patrick. 2016. “Economic Performance and Presidential Vote for Obama: The Underappreciated Influence of Race.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 4 (1): 30–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2015.1050413.
- Friess, Steve. 2022. “GOP Bets on Black Conservatives As Key to Victory: ‘We Change or We Die’.” Newsweek Magazine, February 9. https://www.newsweek.com/2022/02/18/gop-bets-black-conservatives-key-victory-we-change-we-die-1677030.html.
- Gaines, Kevin K. 2021. “Reflections on 2020.” Peace & Change 46 (4): 323–329. https://doi.org/10.1111/pech.12485.
- Gay, Claudine. 2014. “Knowledge Matters: Policy Cross-Pressures and Black Partisanship.” Political Behavior 36 (1): 99–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-013-9227-3.
- Gay, Claudine, and Katherine Tate. 1998. “Doubly Bound: The Impact of Gender and Race on the Politics of Black Women.” Political Psychology 19 (1): 169–184. https://doi.org/10.1111/0162-895X.00098.
- Gurin, Patricia, Shirley Hatchett, and James S. Jackson. 1989. Hope and Independence: Blacks’ Struggle in the Two Party System. New York: Russell Sage.
- Harris, Frederick, and Brian D. McKenzie. 2015. “Unreconciled Strivings and Warring Ideals: The Complexities of Competing African-American Political Identities.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 3 (2): 239–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2015.1024260.
- Huddy, Leonie, and Stanley Feldman. 2009. “On Assessing the Political Effects of Racial Prejudice.” Annual Review of Political Science 12 (1): 423–447. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.062906.070752.
- Hunt, Matthew O. 2007. “African American, Hispanic, and White Beliefs About Black/White Inequality 1977-2004.” American Sociological Review 72 (3): 390–415. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240707200304.
- Jacobson, Cardell K. 1985. “Resistance to Affirmative Action.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 29 (2): 306–329. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002785029002007.
- Jardina, Ashley. 2019. White Identity Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Kam, Cindy D., and Camille D. Burge. 2018. “Uncovering Reactions to the Racial Resentment Scale Across the Racial Divide.” The Journal of Politics 80 (1): 314–320. https://doi.org/10.1086/693907.
- Kam, Cindy D., and Donald R. Kinder. 2012. “Ethnocentrism as a Short-Term Force in the 2008 American Presidential Election.” American Journal of Political Science 56 (2): 326–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00564.x.
- Kessler, Glenn. 2020. “Trump’s claim that he’s done more for black Americans than any president since Lincoln.” Washington Post, June 5. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/06/05/trumps-claim-that-hes-done-more-blacks-than-any-president-since-lincoln/.
- Kinder, Donald R., and Allison Dale-Riddle. 2012. The End of Race? 2008, Obama, and Racial Politics in America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
- Kinder, Donald R., and Lynn M. Sanders. 1996. Divided by Color. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Laird, Chryl. 2019. “Black Like Me: How Political Communication Changes Racial Group Identification and its Implications.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 7 (2): 324–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2017.1358187.
- Lewis-Beck, Michael S., and Mary Stegmaier. 2000. “Economic Determinants of Electoral Outcomes.” Annual Review of Political Science 3 (1): 183–219. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.3.1.183
- Lewis, Timothy E., and S. J. Nelson. 2022. “Insulated Blackness: The Cause for Fracture in Black Political Identity.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 10 (5): 754–766. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2021.1892783.
- Liptak, Kevin, and Kristen Holmes. 2020. “Trump calls Black Lives Matter a ‘symbol of hate’ as he digs in on race.” CNN. July 1. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/07/01/politics/donald-trump-black-lives-matter-confederate-race/index.html.
- Lopez, German. 2020. “Donald Trump’s long history of racism, from the 1970s to 2020.” Vox. August 13. https://www.vox.com/2016/7/25/12270880/donald-trump-racist-racism-history.
- Lyle, Monique L. 2014. “How Racial Cues Affect Support for American Racial Hierarchy among African Americans and Whites.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 2 (3): 350–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2014.928643.
- Massey, Douglas S., and Nancy A. Denton. 1993. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- McAdam, Doug. 2015. “Be Careful What You Wish For: The Ironic Connection Between the Civil Rights Struggle and Today’s Divided America.” Sociological Forum 30 (S1): 485–508. https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12173.
- McClain, Paula D., Jessica D. Johnson Carew, Eugene Walton, Jr., and Candis S. Watts. 2009. “Group Membership, Group Identity, and Group Consciousness: Measures of Racial Identity in American Politics?” Annual Review of Political Science 12 (1): 471–485. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.10.072805.102452.
- Mendelberg, Tali. 1997. “Executing Hortons: Racial Crime in the 1988 Presidential Campaign.” Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1, Special Issue on Race): 134–157. https://doi.org/10.1086/297790.
- Merseth, Julie Lee. 2018. “Race-Ing solidarity: Asian Americans and support for Black Lives Matter.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 6 (3): 337–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2018.1494015
- Mohamed, Besheer, Kiana Cox, Jeff Diamant, and Claire Gecewicz. 2021. “Faith Among Black Americans.” Pew Research Center. February 16. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/02/16/faith-among-black-americans/.
- Moody, Chris, and Kristen Holmes. 2015. “Donald Trump’s history of suggesting Obama is a Muslim.” CNN. September 18. https://edition.cnn.com/2015/09/18/politics/trump-obama-muslim-birther/index.html.
- Nagesh, Ashitha. 2020. “US election 2020: Why Trump gained support among minorities.” BBC, November 22. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-54972389.
- Nunnally, Shayla, and Niambi Carter. 2012. “Moving from Victims to Victors: African American Attitudes on the “Culture of Poverty” and Black Blame.” Journal of African American Studies 16 (3): 423–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12111-011-9197-7.
- Orr, Gabby, and Alex Isenstadt. 2020. “Trump campaign’s plan to woo black voters: Retail stores.” Politico, February 26. https://www.politico.com/amp/news/2020/02/26/donald-trump-black-voters-retail-stores-117756.
- Ostfield, Mara, and Michelle Garcia. 2020. “Black men shift slightly toward Trump in record numbers, polls show.” NBC NEWS. November 4. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/nbcblk/black-men-drifted-democrats-toward-trump-record-numbers-polls-show-n1246447.
- Pattillo-McCoy, Mary. 1999. Black Picket Fences: Privilege and Peril among the Black Middle Class. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Pew. 2022. “Racial and ethnic composition among conservatives by state.” Retrieved July 10, 2022, from: https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/religious-landscape-study/compare/racial-and-ethnic-composition/by/state/among/political-ideology/conservative/.
- Philpot, Tasha S. 2017. Conservative but Not Republican: The Paradox of Party Identification and Ideology among African Americans. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Rigueur, Leah Wright. 2014. The Loneliness of the Black Republican. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
- Rosenfeld, Ross. 2020. “There’s no Longer any Doubt: Trump is a White Supremacist.” New York Daily News, July 1. https://www.nydailynews.com/opinion/ny-oped-trump-white-supremacist-20200701-5zumhjygabhgfckydm7xyhbm6a-story.html.
- Rubin, Jennifer. 2020. “Distinguished pol of the Week: Stacey Abrams Showed Democrats how to win.” Washington Post, December 13. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2020/12/13/distinguished-pol-week-she-showed-democrats-how-win/.
- Shah, Khushbu. 2019. “President Launches ‘Black Voices for Trump’ Campaign in Atlanta.” The Guardian, November 8. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/nov/08/donald-trump-black-voices-african-american-voters.
- Shaw, Todd C., Kirk A. Foster, and Barbara Harris Combs. 2019. “Race and Poverty Matters: Black and Latino Linked Fate, Neighborhood Effects, and Political Participation.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 7 (3): 663–672. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2019.1638800.
- Sides, John, Michael Tesler, and Lynn Vavreck. 2016. “The Electoral Landscape of 2016.” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 667 (1): 50–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716216658922.
- Sides, John, Michael Tesler, and Lynn Vavreck. 2018. “Hunting Where the Ducks are: Activating Support for Donald Trump in the 2016 Republican Primary.” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 28 (2): 135–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2018.1441849.
- Simien, Evelyn M. 2013. “African American Public Opinion: Past, Present, and Future Research.” Politics, Groups and Identities 1 (2): 263–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2013.785961.
- Skelley, Geoffrey, and Anna Wiederkehr. 2020. “Trump Is Losing Ground With White Voters But Gaining Among Black And Hispanic Americans.” FiveThirtyEight. October 19. https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/trump-is-losing-ground-with-white-voters-but-gaining-among-black-and-hispanic-americans/
- Sommer, Udi. 2013. “Representative Appointments: The Effect of Women’s Groups in Contentious Supreme Court Confirmations.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 34 (1): 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/1554477X.2013.747876.
- Sommer, Udi, Or Rappel-Kroyzer, Amy Adamczyk, Lindsay Lerner, and Anna Weiner. 2023. “The Political Ramifications of Judicial Institutions: Establishing a Link Between Dobbs and Gender Disparities in the 2022 Midterms.” Socius 9. https://doi.org/10.1177/23780231231177157.
- Tajfel, Henri, and John. C. Turner. 1979. “An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict.” In The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, edited by William G. Austin, and Stephen Worchel, 33–37. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
- Tate, Katherine. 2010. What’s Going On? Political Incorporation and the Transformation of Black Public Opinion. Washington: Georgetown University Press.
- Tesler, Michael. 2016. Post-Racial or Most-Racial? Race and Politics in the Obama Era. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Thompson, Andrew Ifedapo, and Ethan C. Busby. 2023. “Defending the Dog Whistle: The Role of Justifications in Racial Messaging.” Political Behavior 45 (3): 1241–1262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-021-09759-x.
- Tidmore, Christopher. 2020. “One in Three Black men Backed Trump in ‘Blue Wall’ States.” The Cincinnati Herald, November 26. https://thecincinnatiherald.com/2020/11/one-in-three-black-men-backed-trump-in-blue-wall-states/.
- Tien, Charles, Richard Nadeau, and Michael S. Lewis-Beck. 2012. “Obama and 2012: Still a Racial Cost to Pay?” PS: Political Science & Politics 45 (4): 591–595. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096512000704.
- Vaughan, Alan G. 2021. “Phenomenology of the Trickster Archetype, U.S. Electoral Politics and the Black Lives Matter Movement.” Journal of Analytical Psychology 66 (3): 695–718. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5922.12698.
- Welch, Susan, and Lorn S. Foster. 1992. “The Impact of Economic Conditions on the Voting Behavior of Blacks.” The Western Political Quarterly 45 (1): 221–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591299204500115.
- White, Ismail K. 2007. “When Race Matters and When It Doesn’t: Racial Group Differences in Response to Racial Cues.” American Political Science Review 101 (2): 339–354. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055407070177.
- Wilson, William J. 1978. The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American Institutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- Wolak, Jennifer. 2018. “Feelings of Political Efficacy in the Fifty States.” Political Behavior 40 (3): 763–784. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-017-9421-9.
- Zigerell, Lawrence J. 2015. “Distinguishing Racism from Ideology: A Methodological Inquiry.” Political Research Quarterly 68 (3): 521–536. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912915586631.