From the Earth: Spirituality, Medicine Vessels, and Consecrated Bowls as Responses to Slavery in the South Carolina Lowcountry

References

• Achebe, Chinua. 1959. Things Fall Apart. New York: Random House.
   Google Scholar
• Adams, Natalie P. 2007. “The ‘Cymbee’ Water Spirits of St. John’s Berkeley.” African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter, June. http://www.diaspora.uiuc.edu/news0607/news0607.html#3.
   Google Scholar
• Agha, Andrew, and Nicole M. Isenbarger. 2011. “Recently Discovered Marked Colonoware from Dean Hall Plantation, Berkeley County, South Carolina.” Historical Archaeology 45 (2): 184–187. doi: 10.1007/BF03376841
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agha, Andrew, Nicole Isenbarger, and Charles F. Philips Jr. 2012. “Traditions in Rice and Clay: Understanding an Eighteenth-Nineteenth Century Rice Plantation, Dean Hall Plantation (38BK2132), Berkeley County, South Carolina.” Preliminary Final Report, Prepared for E.I. Nemours DuPont Moncks Corner, South Carolina.
   Google Scholar
• Anthony, Ronald. 1986. “Colono Wares.” In Home Upriver: Rural Life on Daniel’s Island, Berkeley County, South Carolina, edited by Jeanne Calhoun, Martha Zierden, and Lesley Drucker, 7.22–7.50. Columbia, SC: Carolina Archaeological Services.
   Google Scholar
• Baker, Stephen G. 1972. “Colono-Indian Pottery from Cambridge, South Carolina with Comments on the Historic Catawba Pottery Trade.” Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, Notebook 4: 3–30.
   Google Scholar
• Barley, Nigel. 1994. Smashing Pots: Works of Clay from Africa. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
   Google Scholar
• Barnes, Jodi A., and Carl Steen. 2012. “Archaeology and Heritage of the Gullah People: A Call to Action.” Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage 1 (2): 167–224. doi: 10.1179/jaf.2012.1.2.167
   Google Scholar
• Berns, Maria, and Barbara Rubin Hudson. 1986. The Essential Gourd: Art and History in Northeastern Nigeria. Los Angeles: University of California Press, Fowler Museum of Cultural History.
   Google Scholar
• Blier, Suzanne Preston. 1995a. African Vodun Art: Art, Psychology, and Power. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Blier, Suzanne Preston. 1995b. “The Place Where Vodun Was Born.” Natural History (October): 40–49.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blier, Suzanne Preston. 2010. “The Necessity of Ugliness.” In In 100,000 Years of Beauty, edited by Elizabeth Azouley, 132–133. Paris: Gallimard/Babylon.
   Google Scholar
• Braffi, Emmanuel Kingsley. 1974. The Magic of our Local Herbs. Kumasi: University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brathwaite, Edward Kamau. 1971. The Development of Creole Society in Jamaica: 1770–1820. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, Kenneth. 1994. “Material Culture and Community Structure: The Slave and Tenant Community at Levi Jordan’s Plantation, 1848–1892.” In Working toward Freedom: Slave Society and Domestic Economy in the American South, edited by L. E. Hudson Jr., 95–118. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, Ras Michael. 2002. “‘Walk in the Feenda’: West-Central Africans and the Forest in the South Carolina-Georgia Lowcountry.” In Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora, edited by Linda M. Heywood, 289–317. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, Kenneth. 2004. “Ethnographic Analogy, Archaeology, and the African Diaspora: Perspectives from a Tenant Community.” Historical Archaeology 38 (1): 79–89. doi: 10.1007/BF03376634
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, Ras Michael. 2012. African-Atlantic Cultures and the South Carolina Lowcountry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Carney, Judith A. 2001. Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Crane, Brian D. 1993. “Colono Ware and Criollo Ware Pottery from Charleston, South Carolina and San Juan, Puerto Rico in Comparative Perspective.” PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania.
   Google Scholar
• Creel, Margaret Washington. 1988. “A Peculiar People”: Slave Religion and Community among the Gullahs. New York: New York University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Croucher, Sarah. 2013. “The Archaeology of Colonial Encounters in East Africa.” In The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology, edited by Peter Mitchell and Paul Lane, 1013–1022. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Deetz, James. 1996. In Small Things Forgotten: An Archaeology of Early American Life. New York: Doubleday.
   Google Scholar
• de Maret, Pierre. 2005. “From Pottery Groups to Ethnic Groups in Central Africa.” In African Archaeology, edited by Ann Brower Stahl, 420–440. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Denbow, James. 1999. “Heart and Soul: Glimpses of Ideology and Cosmology in the Iconography of Tombstones from the Loango Coast of Central Africa.” The Journal of American Folklore 112 (445): 404–423. doi: 10.2307/541369
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dennis, Jeff. 2017. Patriots and Indians: Shaping Identity in Eighteenth Century South Carolina. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Emecheta, Buchi. 1979. The Joys of Motherhood. New York: George Braziller, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Espenshade, Christopher T. 1998. “The Changing Use Contexts of Slave-made Pottery on the South Carolina Coast.” In Conference Proceedings: African Impact on the Material Culture of the Americas, May 30-June 2, 1996. Unpaginated. Winston-Salem, NC: Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts, Old Salem.
   Google Scholar
• Espenshade, Christopher T. 2007a. “A River of Doubt: Marked Colonoware, Underwater Sampling, and Questions of Inference.” African Diaspora Archaeology Network Newsletter, March. http://www.diaspora.illinois.edu/news0307/news0307.html.
   Google Scholar
• Espenshade, Christopher T. 2007b. “Building on Joseph’s Model of Market-bound Colonoware Pottery.” African Diaspora Archaeology Network Newsletter, September. http://www.diaspora.illinois.edu/news0907/news0907.html#3.
   Google Scholar
• Espenshade, Christopher T. 2008. “And Then There was None: The Post-emancipation Cessation of Colonoware Production in South Carolina.” Paper presented in the symposium, “Post-Emancipation Transitions in the African Diaspora.” Annual meeting of the Society for Historical Archaeology, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
   Google Scholar
• Fairbanks, Charles H. 1984. “The Plantation Archaeology of the Southeastern Coast.” Historical Archaeology 18: 1–14. doi: 10.1007/BF03374036
   Google Scholar
• Fenn, Elizabeth A. 1985. “Honoring the Ancestors: Kongo-American Graves in the American South.” Southern Exposure 13: 42–47.
   Google Scholar
• Fennell, Christopher C. 2007a. “BaKongo Identity and Symbolic Expression in the Americas.” In Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora, edited by Akinwumi Ogundiran and Toyin Falola, 199–232. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fennell, Christopher C. 2007b. Crossroads and Cosmologies: Diasporas and Ethnogenesis in the New World. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
   Google Scholar
• Fennell, Christopher C. 2011. “Early African America: Archaeological Studies of Significance and Diversity.” Journal of Archaeological Research 19 (1): 1–49. doi: 10.1007/s10814-010-9042-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fennell, Christopher C. 2013. “Kongo and the Archaeology of Early African America.” In Kongo across the Waters, edited by Susan Cooksey, Robin Poynor, and Hein Vanhee, 229–237. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
   Google Scholar
• Fennell, Christopher C. 2017. “The Stoneware Pottery Communities and Heritage of Edgefield, South Carolina (Part 1).” Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage 6 (2): 55–169. doi: 10.1080/21619441.2017.1345105
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, Leland. 1980. “Looking for the ‘Afro’ in Colono-Indian Pottery.” In Archaeological Perspectives on Ethnicity in America, edited by Robert L. Schuyler, 14–28. Farmingdale, NY: Baywood.
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, Leland. 1990. “Low Country Plantations, the Catawba Nation, and River Burnished Pottery.” In Studies in South Carolina Archaeology: Essays in Honor of R.S. Stephenson, Anthropological Studies 8, edited by Albert C. Goodyear III and Glen T. Hanson, 185–192. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology.
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, Leland. 1991. “Struggling with Pots in Colonial South Carolina.” In The Archaeology of Inequality, edited by Randall H. McGuire and Robert Paynter, 28–39. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, Leland. 1992. Uncommon Ground: Archaeology and Early African America, 1650–1800. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, Leland. 1994. “MESDA’s Colono Ware Bowl.” The Luminary: The Newsletter of the Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts 15 (1): 5.
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, Leland. 1999. “The Cross is a Magic Sign.” In “I, Too, Am America”: Archaeological Studies of African-American Life, edited by Theresa Singleton, 116–131. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, Leland. 2000. "Introduction." Historical Archaeology 34 (3): 5-9. doi: 10.1007/BF03373637
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson, Leland. 2007. “Comments on Espenshade’s ‘A River of Doubt: Marked Colonoware, Underwater Sampling and Questions of Inference’.” African Diaspora Archaeology Network Newsletter, March. http://www.diaspora.illinois.edu/news0307/news0307.html.
   Google Scholar
• Fett, Sharla M. 2017. Recaptured Africans: Surviving Slave Ships, Detention, and Dislocation in the Final Years of the Slave Trade. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Fields-Black, Etta L. 2008. Deep Roots: Rice Farmers in West Africa and the African Diaspora. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gallay, Alan. 2002. The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670–1717. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gilroy, Paul. 1993. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. London: Verso.
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg, Kelly. 2014. “Identifying Identity: An Archaeological Investigation of the Intersection of Place and Identity at an African American Lowcountry Site.” Master’s thesis, University of South Carolina, Columbia.
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg, Kelly. 2017. “The Emergence of Gullah Identity.” In exhibit catalog, Black Medicine, White Bodies: An Investigation of Yellow Fever Epidemics in Charleston, 1854–1871, edited by Liz Wakefield, 11–15. Columbia: McKissick Museum, University of South Carolina.
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg, Kelly. 2018. “That Diabolical Traffic: Archaeological Explorations of the Nineteenth Century Slave Trade in Coastal Guinea.” PhD diss., University of South Carolina.
   Google Scholar
• Gosselain, Olivier. 1999. “In Pots We Trust: The Processing of Clay and Symbols in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of Material Culture 4 (2): 205–230. doi: 10.1177/135918359900400205
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gosselain, Olivier P., and Paul-Louis Van Berg. 1991–92. “Style, Individualité et Taxonomie Chez Les Potières Bafia du Cameroun.” Bulletin du Centre Genevois d’Anthropologie 3: 99–114.
   Google Scholar
• Gottlieb, Alma, and Philip Graham. 1993. Parallel Worlds: An Anthropologist and a Writer Encounter Africa. New York: Crown.
   Google Scholar
• Groover, Mark D. 1994. “Evidence for Folkways and Cultural Exchange in the 18th-Century South Carolina Backcountry.” Historical Archaeology 28 (1): 41–64. doi: 10.1007/BF03374180
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gundaker, Grey. 2011. “The Kongo Cosmogram in Historical Archaeology and the Moral Compass of Dave the Potter.” Historical Archaeology 45 (2): 176–183. doi: 10.1007/BF03376840
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herbert, Eugenia W. 1993. Iron, Gender, and Power: Rituals of Transformation in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hume, Ivor Noël. 1962. “An Indian Ware of the Colonial Period.” Quarterly Bulletin, Archaeological Society of Virginia 17 (1): 2–12.
   Google Scholar
• Hurston, Zora Neale. 2018. Barracoon: The Story of the Last “Black Cargo”. York: Amistad Press.
   Google Scholar
• Isenbarger, Nicole M. 2006. “Potters, Hucksters, and Consumers: Placing Colonoware within the Internal Slave Economy Framework.” MA thesis, University of South Carolina.
   Google Scholar
• Isenbarger, Nicole M., and Andrew Agha. 2014. “From Symbols to Shrines: Linking West African Religions to a South Carolina Slave Village.” Paper presented to the Annual Conference of the Archaeological Society of South Carolina.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, Guion Griffin. 1930. A Social History of the Sea Islands, with Special Reference to St. Helena Island, South Carolina. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Joseph, J. W. 2004. “Colonoware for the Village—Colonoware for the Market: Observations from the Charleston Judicial Center Site (38CH1708) on Colonoware Production and Typology.” South Carolina Antiquities 36 (1–2): 72–86.
   Google Scholar
• Joseph, J. W. 2007. “One More Look into the Water—Colonoware in South Carolina Rivers and Charleston’s Market Economy.” African Diaspora Archaeology Network Newsletter, June. http://www.diaspora.illinois.edu/news0607/news0607.html#2.
   Google Scholar
• Joseph, J. W. 2011. “‘All of Cross’—African Potters and Meanings in the Folk Pottery of the Edgefield District, South Carolina.” Historical Archaeology 45 (2): 134–155. doi: 10.1007/BF03376836
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joseph, J. W. 2016. “Marks from the Past, Signs of the Future—The Dikenga of Historical Archaeology.” Historical Archaeology 50 (3): 5–23. doi: 10.1007/BF03377331
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joyner, Charles. 1984. Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lees, William B., and Kathryn Kimery-Lees. 1979. “The Function of Colono-Indian Ceramics: Insights from Limerick Plantation, South Carolina.” Historical Archaeology 13: 1–13. doi: 10.1007/BF03373446
   Google Scholar
• Littlefield, Daniel. 1991. Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Coastal South Carolina. Champaign: University of Illinois Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lovejoy, Henry. N.d. “Liberated Africans.” https://liberatedafricans.org /.
   Google Scholar
• Macfoy, Cyrus A. 1985. “Medical Ethnobotany of Gloucester Village, Sierra Leone.” Africana Research Bulletin 14 (1–2): 2–14.
   Google Scholar
• Macfoy, Cyrus A. 2013. Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine in Sierra Leone. Bloomington: iUniverse, LLC.
   Google Scholar
• MacGaffey, Wyatt. 1986. Religion and Society in Central Africa: The Bakongo of Lower Zaire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• MacGaffey, Wyatt. 1988. “Complexity, Astonishment and Power: The Visual Vocabulary of Kongo Minkisi.” Journal of Southern African Studies 14 (2): 188–203. doi: 10.1080/03057078808708170
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacGaffey, Wyatt. 1991. Art and Healing of the Bakongo. Stockholm: Folkens Museum, Etnografiska.
   Google Scholar
• Marcil, Valerie. 1993. “Continuity and Change: Colono Ware as a Coping Tool for African Americans.” Master’s thesis, University of South Carolina.
   Google Scholar
• Matthew, William M., ed. [1843] 1992. Agriculture, Geology, and Society in Antebellum South Carolina: The Private Diary of Edmund Ruffin. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
   Google Scholar
• McMillin, James. 2004. The Final Victims: Foreign Slave Trade to North America, 1783–1810, Volume 1. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Merrens, Roy H., ed. 1977. The Colonial South Carolina Scene: Contemporary Views, 1697–1774. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell, Peter, and Paul Lane, eds. 2013. The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Montgomery, Charles J. 1908. “Survivors of the Cargo of the Slave Yacht Wanderer.” American Anthropologist 10: 611–623. doi: 10.1525/aa.1908.10.4.02a00110
   Google Scholar
• Morgan, Philip D. 1998. Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• National Park Service. 2005. Lowcountry Gullah Culture Special Resource Study and Final Environmental Impact Statement. Atlanta, GA: NPS Southeast Regional Office.
   Google Scholar
• Naylor, Celia E. African Cherokees in Indian Territory: From Chattel to Citizens. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nwapa, Flora. 1966. Efuru. London: Heinemann Educational Books.
   Google Scholar
• Ogundiran, Akinwumi, and Toyin Falola, eds. 2007. Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Pawlikova-Vilhanova, Viera. 2007. “Christian Missions in Africa and their Role in the Transformation of African Societies.” Asian and African Studies 16 (2): 249–260.
   Google Scholar
• Posnansky, Merrick. 1999. “West African Reflections on African-American Archaeology.” In “I Too, Am America”: Archaeological Studies of African-American Life, edited by Theresa A. Singleton, 21–38. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
   Google Scholar
• Rawick, George P., ed. 1972. The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography, South Carolina Narratives, Parts 1 and 2. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
   Google Scholar
• Reber, Eleanor A. 2012. “Colonoware Residues from the Dean Hall Site.” In Traditions in Rice and Clay: Understanding an Eighteenth-Nineteenth Century Rice Plantation, Dean Hall Plantation (38BK2132), Berkeley County, South Carolina, edited by Andrew Agha, Nicole Isenbarger, and Charles F. Philips, Jr., appendix F. Final Report prepared for E.I. Nemours DuPont: Moncks Corner, SC.
   Google Scholar
• Robertson, Claire C. 1984. Sharing the Same Bowl: A Socioeconomic History of Women and Class in Accra, Ghana. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rosengarten, Dale. 1986. Row Upon Row: Sea Grass Baskets of the South Carolina Lowcountry. Columbia: McKissick Museum, University of South Carolina.
   Google Scholar
• Rosengarten, Dale. 1994. “Spirits of Our Ancestors: Basket Traditions in the Carolinas.” In The Crucible Essays in the Development of Gullah Language and Culture, edited by Michael Montogmery, 133–157. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rosengarten, Dale. 2008. “They Understood their Business Well: West Africans in Early South Carolina.” In Grass Roots: African Origins of an American Art, edited by Dale Rosengarten, Theodore Rosengarten, and Enid Schildkrout, 78–93. New York: Museum for African Art.
   Google Scholar
• Rosengarten, Dale. 2013. “The Kongo Connection: Central African Baskets and Their American Kin.” In Kongo across the Waters, edited by Susan Cooksey, Robin Poynor, and Hein Vanhee, 274–283. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
   Google Scholar
• Rosengarten, Theodore. 1986. Tombee: Portrait of a Cotton Planter, with the Plantation Journal of Thomas B. Chaplin (1822–1890). New York: William Morrow and Co.
   Google Scholar
• Sargent, Carolyn F., and David A. Friedel. 1986. “From Clay to Metal: Culture Change and Container Usage among the Bariba of Northern Benin, West Africa.” African Archaeological Review 4: 177–195. doi: 10.1007/BF01117041
   Google Scholar
• Saunt, Claudio. 2005. Black, White, and Indian: Race and the Unmaking of an American Family. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, Peter R. 1978. Historical Archaeology: A Structural Approach in an African Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt, Peter R., ed. 1996. The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
   Google Scholar
• Seabrook, Whitemarsh B. 1824. Memoir of the Origin, Cultivation, and Uses of Cotton, with Special Reference to the Sea-Island Cotton Plant. Charleston, SC: Miller and Browne.
   Google Scholar
• Singleton, Theresa A., and Mark Bograd. 2000. “Breaking Typological Barriers: Looking for the Colono in Colonoware.” In Lines that Divide: Historical Archaeologies of Race, Class, and Gender, edited by James Delle, Stephen Mrozowski, and Robert Paynter, 3–21. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.
   Google Scholar
• Somé, Malidoma Patrice. 1994. Of Water and the Spirit: Ritual, Magic, and Initiation in the Life of an African Shaman. New York: Penguin Books.
   Google Scholar
• Steen, Carl. 2002. “Stirring the Ethnic Stew in the South Carolina Backcountry: John de la Howe and Lethe Farm.” In Historical Archaeology, Identity Formation, and the Interpretation of Ethnicity, edited by Maria Franklin and Grant Fesler, 93–120. Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Steen, Carl. 2011. “Cosmograms, Crosses, and Xs: Context and Inference.” Historical Archaeology 45 (2): 166–175. doi: 10.1007/BF03376839
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuckey, Sterling. 1987. Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sweet, James H. 2011. Domingos Alvarez, African Healing and the Intellectual History of the Atlantic World. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Symanski, Luís Cláudio P. 2006. “Slaves and Planters Western Brazil: Material Culture, Identity and Power.” PhD diss., University of Florida.
   Google Scholar
• Symanski, Luís Cláudio P. 2012. “The Place of Strategy and Spaces of Tactics: Structures, Artifacts, and Power Relations on Sugar Plantations of West Brazil.” Historical Archaeology 46 (3): 124–148. doi: 10.1007/BF03376874
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, Robert F. 1983. Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-American Art and Philosophy. New York: Random House.
   Google Scholar
• Thompson, Robert F. 1998. “Bighearted Power: Kongo Presence in the Landscape and Art of Black America.” In Keep Your Head to the Sky: Interpreting African American Home Ground, edited by Grey Gundaker, 37–64. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
   Google Scholar
• Thornton, John K. 1991. “African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion.” The American Historical Review 96: 1101–1113. doi: 10.2307/2164997
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Traoré, Dominique. 1983. Medecine et Magie Africaines, ou Comment Le Noir Se Soigne-t-il? Dakar, Senegal/Paris, France: Présence Africaine, Agence de Coopération Culturelle et Technique.
   Google Scholar
• Turner, Lorenzo Dow. 1969. Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect. New York: Arno Press.
   Google Scholar
• Usner, Daniel. 1992. Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley Before 1783. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Vlach, John Michael. 1990. The Afro-American Tradition. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
   Google Scholar
• Voyages Database. 2019. “Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database.” https://www.slavevoyages.org.
   Google Scholar
• Weik, Terrence. 1997. “The Archaeology of Maroon Societies in the Americas: Resistance, Cultural Continuity, and Transformation in the African Diaspora.” Historical Archaeology 31 (2): 81–92. doi: 10.1007/BF03373604
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheaton, Thomas R., Amy Friedlander, and Patrick H. Garrow. 1983. “Yaughan and Curriboo Plantations: Studies in Afro-American Archaeology.” Report submitted to the Charleston District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. National Park Service, Southeast Regional Office.
   Google Scholar
• Wheaton, Thomas R., and Patrick H. Garrow. 1985. “Acculturation and the Archaeological Record in the Carolina Lowcountry.” In The Archaeology of Slavery and Plantation Life, edited by Theresa Singleton, 239–260. New York: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• White, E. Frances. 1987. Sierra Leone’s Settler Women Traders: Women on the Afro-European Frontier. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wood, Peter H. 1974. Black Majority. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
   Google Scholar
• Wood, Peter H. 1998. “The Calabash Estate: Gourds in African American Life and Thought.” In African Impact on the Material Culture of the Americas: Conference Proceedings. Winston-Salem, NC: Old Salem.
   Google Scholar
• Wood, Peter H. 2006. “The Changing Population of the Colonial South: An Overview by Race and Region, 1685–1790.” In Powhatan’s Mantle: Indians in the Colonial Southeast, edited by Gregory A. Waselkov, Peter H. Wood, and Tom Hatley, 57–132. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
   Google Scholar
• Wood, Peter H. 2008. “They Understood their Business Well: West Africans in Early South Carolina.” In Grass Roots: African Origins of an American Art, edited by Dale Rosengarten, Theodore Rosengarten, and Enid Schildkrout, 78–93. New York: Museum for African Art.
   Google Scholar