Transforming Foodways: Changes in Diet, Procurement, Consumption, and Access for Laborers on the Stono Plantation, James Island, South Carolina

References

• Agha, Andrew. 2012. “St. Giles Kussoe and ‘The Character of a Loyal States-man’: Historical Archaeology at Lord Anthony Ashley Cooper’s Carolina Plantation.” Report prepared for the Historic Charleston Foundation, Charleston, South Carolina.
   Google Scholar
• Agha, Andrew. 2015. “Standing the Test of Time: Embankment Investigations, Their Implications for African Technology Transfer and Effect on African American Archaeology in South Carolina.” Atlantic Studies 12 (3): 336–354.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agha, Andrew, Nicole Isenbarger, Charles F. Phillips, Kandice Hollenback, Eleanora A. Reber, and Jessica Allgood. 2012. “Traditions in Rice and Clay: Understanding an Eighteenth-Nineteenth Century Rice Plantation, Dean Hall Plantation (38BK2132), Berkeley County, South Carolina.” Report prepared by Brockington and Associates for E. I. Nemours DuPont, Moncks Corner, South Carolina.
   Google Scholar
• Anthony, Ronald W. 2012. Dill Sanctuary Archaeology: A Descriptive Summary. Archaeological Contributions 46. Charleston, South Carolina: The Charleston Museum.
   Google Scholar
• Armstrong, Douglas V. 2011. “Reflections on Seville: Rediscovering the African Jamaican Settlements at Seville Plantation, St. Ann's Bay.” In Out of Many, One People: The Historical Archaeology of Colonial Jamaica, edited by James A. Delle, Mark W. Hauser, and Douglas V. Armstrong, 77–101. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ascher, Robert, and Charles H. Fairbanks. 1971. “Excavations of a Slave Cabin: Georgia, U.S.A.” Historical Archaeology 5: 3–17.
   Google Scholar
• Atalay, Sonya, and Christine A. Hastorf. 2006. “Food, Meals, and Daily Activities: Food Habitus at Neolithic Çatalhöyük.” American Antiquity 71 (2): 283–319.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayers, Edward. 2007. The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Barickman, B. J. 1994. “‘A Bit of Land, Which They Call Roça’: Slave Provision Grounds in the Bahian Recôncavo, 1780-1860.” The Hispanic American Historical Review 74 (4): 649–687.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barnes, Jodi A., and Carl Steen. 2012. “Archaeology and Heritage of the Gullah People: A Call to Action.” Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage 1 (2): 167–224.
   Google Scholar
• Beaudry, Mary C., Janet Long, Henry M. Miller, Fraser D. Neiman, and Garry Wheeler Stone. 1983. “A Vessel Typology for Early Chesapeake Ceramics: The Potomac Typological System.” Historical Archaeology 17 (1): 18–43.
   Google Scholar
• Berlin, Ira, Barbara J. Fields, Steven F. Miller, Joseph P. Reidy, and Leslie S. Rowland. 1992. Free at Last: A Documentary History of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War. New York: The New Press.
   Google Scholar
• Berlin, Ira, and Philip D. Morgan. 1993. The Slaves’ Economy: Independent Production by Slaves in the Americas. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Blackmon, Douglas A. 2008. Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II. New York: Anchor Books.
   Google Scholar
• Bliss, Laura. 2018. “The Gullah-Geechee People Called Carolina’s Coast Home for Centuries. Then Florence Came.” Mother Jones, September 18. https://www.motherjones.com/ environment/2018/09/florence-is-destroying-a-delicate-system-of-land-ownership-going-back-over-100-years/.
   Google Scholar
• Bourdieu, Pierre. 2013. “Structures, Habitus, Practices.” In Social Theory: The Mulitcultural, Global, and Classic Readings, edited by Charles Lemert, 329–333. Boulder: Westview Press.
   Google Scholar
• Breck, Edward. 1934. “Challenge to Humanity.” Anti-Steel-Trap League News 4 (1): 2–10.
   Google Scholar
• Brilliant, Brooke M. 2011. “Colonoware, Creolization, and Interactions between African Americans and Native Americans during the Colonial Period in the South Carolina Lowcountry.” Master’s thesis, University of South Carolina, Columbia.
   Google Scholar
• Brones, Anna. 2018. “Food Apartheid: The Root of the Problem with America’s Groceries.” The Guardian, May 15. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/may/15/food-apartheid-food-deserts-racism-inequality-america-karen-washington-interview.
   Google Scholar
• Burrell Jr, Victor G. 2003. South Carolina Oyster Industry: A History. Charleston, SC: V.G. Burrell Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Calhoun, Jeanne A. 1986. Stono Plantation: A Preliminary Historical Report. Report prepared for The Charleston Museum, Charleston, South Carolina.
   Google Scholar
• Carney, Judith. 1996. “Rice Milling, Gender and Slave Labour in Colonial South Carolina.” Past & Present 153: 108–134.
   Google Scholar
• Carney, Judith. 2001. Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cary, Nathaniel. 2019. “Gullah People Embrace Culture Amid New Challenges in the Most African Place in America.” The Greenville News, February 4. https://www.greenvilleonline.com/story/news/2019/02/04/south-carolina-gullah-people-embrace-distinct-culture-amid-new-challenges-african-place-america/2611047002/.
   Google Scholar
• Chandler, Genevieve W. 1941. “Some Recollections of ‘the Reb Time Day’ given by Aunt Margaret Bryant.” In Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves, Vol. 14, South Carolina, Part 1, Abrams-Durant, edited by the Federal Writer's Project, 145-148. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress.
   Google Scholar
• Code Switch. 2020. “A Decade of Watching Black People Die.” NPR, May 31. https://www.npr.org/2020/05/29/865261916/a-decade-of-watching-black-people-die.
   Google Scholar
• Crader, Diana C. 1990. “Slave Diet at Monticello.” American Antiquity 55 (4): 690–717.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crook, Ray. 2001. “Gullah and the Task System.” Anthropology of Work Review 22 (2): 24–28.
   Google Scholar
• DAACS. 2019. Artifact Query 3, Detailed Inventory, DAACS, February 4, 2019. DAACS.org.
   Google Scholar
• Daniel, Peter. 2013. Dispossession: Discrimination Against African American Farmers in the Age of Civil Rights. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dukes, Joel A., and Elizabeth J. Reitz. 1994. Vertebrate Fauna from Stono Plantation, James Island, South Carolina. Report produced for the Museum of Natural History, University of Georgia, Athens.
   Google Scholar
• Edgar, Walter. 1998. South Carolina: A History. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Edge, John T. 2017. The Potlikker Papers: A Food History of the Modern South. New York: Penguin Books.
   Google Scholar
• Ehrenhard, John E., and Mary R. Bullard. 1981. Stafford Plantation, Cumberland Island National Seashore, Georgia: Archaeological Investigations of a Slave Cabin. Tallahassee, FL: Southeast Archaeological Center, National Park Service.
   Google Scholar
• Elias, Megan. 2012. “Summoning the Food Ghosts: Food History as Public History.” The Public Historian 34 (2): 13–29.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis, Jamelle H., Daniela B. Friedman, Robin Puett, Geoffrey I. Scott, and Dwayne E. Porter. 2014. “A Qualitative Exploration of Fishing and Fish Consumption in the Gullah/Geechee Culture.” Journal of Community Health 39: 1161–1170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epps, Katrina S. 2004. “Intra-Regional Interaction in the Lowcountry of South Carolina.” Master’s thesis, University of South Carolina.
   Google Scholar
• Espenshade, Chris. 2008. “And Then There Was None: The Post-Emancipation Cessation of Colonoware Production in South Carolina.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Historical Archaeology, Albuquerque, New Mexico, January 9–12.
   Google Scholar
• Fairbanks, Charles H. 1984. “The Plantation Archaeology of the Southeastern Coast.” Historical Archaeology 18 (1): 1–14.
   Google Scholar
• Farrish, Christopher. 2015. “Theft, Food Labor, and Culinary Insurrection in the Virginia Plantation Yard.” In Dethroning the Deceitful Pork Chop: Rethinking African American Foodways from Slavery to Obama, edited by Jennifer Jensen Wallach, 151–163. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas.
   Google Scholar
• Fennell, Christopher C. 2011. “Early African America: Archaeological Studies of Significance and Diversity.” Journal of Archaeological Research 19: 1–49.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferguson, Leland. 1992. Uncommon Ground: Archaeology and Early African America, 1650-1800. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books.
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson, Leland, and Kelly Goldberg. 2019. “From the Earth: Spirituality, Medicine Vessels, and Consecrated Bowls as Responses to Slavery in the South Carolina Lowcountry.” Journal of African Diaspora Archaeology and Heritage 8 (3): 173–201. doi:10.1080/21619441.2019.1690843.
   Google Scholar
• Fisher, Linford D. 2014. “‘Dangerous Designes’: The 1676 Barbados Act to Prohibit New England Indian Slave Importation.” The William and Mary Quarterly 71 (1): 99–124.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frazier, Eugene, Sr. 2006. James Island: Stories from Slave Descendants. Charleston, SC: The History Press.
   Google Scholar
• Frazier, Eugene, Sr. 2010. A History of James Island Slave Descendants and Plantation Owners: The Bloodline. Charleston, SC: The History Press.
   Google Scholar
• Goldberg, Katherine Elisabeth. 2014. “Identifying Identity: An Archaeological Investigation of the Intersection of Place and Identity at an African American Lowcountry Site.” Master’s thesis, University of South Carolina, Columbia.
   Google Scholar
• Grant, Henry. 1941. “Reflections of Ezra Adams: Ex-Slave 83 Years Old.” In Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves, Vol. 14, South Carolina, Part 1, Abrams-Durant, edited by the Federal Writer's Project, 5-8. Washington, DC: Library of Congress.
   Google Scholar
• Grayson, Donald K. 1973. “On the Methodology of Faunal Analysis.” American Antiquity 38 (4): 432–439.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grayson, Donald K. 1978. “Minimum Numbers and Sample Size in Vertebrate Faunal Analysis.” American Antiquity 43 (1): 53–65.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grayson, Donald K. 1979. “On the Quantification of Vertebrate Archaeofaunas.” Advances Archaeological Method and Theory 2: 199–237.
   Google Scholar
• Grayson, Donald K. 1984. Quantitative Zooarchaeology: Topics in the Analysis of Archaeological Faunas. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Greene, Lance K. 2011. “Ethnicity and Material Culture in Antebellum North Carolina.” Southeastern Archaeology 30 (1): 63–78.
   Google Scholar
• Hall, Jacquelyn Dowd, James L. Leloudis, Robert R. Korstad, Mary Murphy, and Lu Ann Jones. 2012. Like a Family: The Making of a Southern Cotton Mill World. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hanson, R. P., and Lars Karstad. 1959. “Feral Swine in the Southeastern United States.” Journal of Wildlife Management 23 (1): 64–74.
   Google Scholar
• Harris, Jessica B. 2011. High on the Hog: A Culinary Journey from Africa to America. New York: Bloomsbury.
   Google Scholar
• Hayden, René, Anthony E. Kaye, Kate Masur, Steven F. Miller, Susan E. O’Donovan, Leslie S. Rowland, and Stephan A. West. 2013. “Possession and Dispossession.” In Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861-1867, edited by René Hayden, Anthony E. Kaye, Kate Masur, Steven F. Miller, Susan E. O’Donovan, Leslie S. Rowland, and Stephan A. West, 211–360. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hilliard, Theresa Jenkins. 2018. Mama Doonk’s Gullah Recipes. Charleston, SC: Theresa Jenkins Hilliard Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Holland, Claudia C. 1990. “Tenant Farms of the Past, Present, and Future: An Ethnoarchaeological View.” Historical Archaeology 24 (4): 60–69.
   Google Scholar
• Jacoby, Karl. 2016. The Strange Career of William Ellis: The Texas Slave Who Became a Mexican Millionaire. New York: W. W. Norton.
   Google Scholar
• Jones, Olive, and Catherine Sullivan. 1989. The Parks Canada Glass Glossary for the Description of Containers, Tableware, Flat Glass, and Closures. Studies in Archaeology Architecture and History, National Historic Parks and Sites, Canadian Park Services. Ottawa, Canada: Minister of Supply and Services.
   Google Scholar
• Joseph, J. W. 1993. “White Columns and Black Hands: Class and Classification in the Plantation Ideology of the Georgia and South Carolina Lowcountry.” Historical Archaeology 27 (3): 57–73.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joseph, J. W. 2016. “Meeting at Market: The Intersection of African American Culture, Craft, and Economy and the Landscape of Charleston, South Carolina.” Historical Archaeology 50 (1): 94–113.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joyner, Charles W. 1984. Down by the Riverside: A South Carolina Slave Community. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kelly, Kenneth G., Mark W. Hauser, and Douglas V. Armstrong. 2011. “Identity and Opportunity in Post-Slavery Jamaica.” In Out of Many, One People: The Historical Archaeology of Colonial Jamaica, edited by James A. Delle, Mark W. Hauser, and Douglas V. Armstrong, 243–257. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kern, Susan A. 2005. “The Jeffersons at Shadwell: The Social and Material World of a Virginia Family.” PhD diss., College of William and Mary, Williamsburg.
   Google Scholar
• Klippel, Walter E., Jennifer A. Synstelien, and Barbara J. Heath. 2011. “Taphonomy and Fish Bones from an Enslaved African American Context at Poplar Forest, Virginia, U.S.A.” Archaeofauna 20: 27–45.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ladson, Augustus. 1941. “Ex-Slave Born in 1857: Grandparents Came Directly from Africa.” In Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves, Vol. 14, South Carolina, Part 1, Abrams-Durant, edited by the Federal Writer's Project, 122–126. Washington, DC: Library of Congress.
   Google Scholar
• Landon, David B. 2005. “Zooarchaeology and Historical Archaeology: Progress and Prospects.” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 12 (1): 1–36.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawson, John. 1709. A New Voyage to Carolina; Containing the Exact Description and Natural History of that Country: Together with the Present State thereof and a Journal of a Thousand Miles, Travel’d thro’ Several Nations of Indians. Giving a Particular Account of Their Customs, Manners, Etc. London: [s.n.].
   Google Scholar
• Lyman, R. Lee. 2008. Quantitative Paleozoology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Menard, Russell R. 1995. “Slave Demography in the Lowcountry, 1670-1740: From Frontier Society to Plantation Regime.” The South Carolina Historical Magazine 96 (4): 280–303.
   Google Scholar
• Miller, George L. 1980. “Classification and Economic Scaling of Nineteenth Century Ceramics.” Historical Archaeology 14: 1–40.
   Google Scholar
• Milman, Oliver. 2019. “Our Unequal Earth: Gullah Geechee: Distinct US Culture Risks Losing Island Home to Climate Crisis.” The Guardian, October 23. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/oct/23/gullah-geechee-distinct-us-culture-risks-losing-island-home-to-climate-crisis.
   Google Scholar
• Moore, Sue Mullins. 1981. “The Antebellum Barrier Island Plantation: in Search of an Archaeological Pattern.” Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, Gainesville.
   Google Scholar
• Morris, Christopher. 1998. “The Articulation of Two Worlds: The Master-Slave Relationship Reconsidered.” The Journal of American History 85 (3): 982–1007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newkirk, Vann R., II. 2018. “Voter Suppression Is Warping Democracy.” The Atlantic, July 17. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2018/07/poll-prri-voter-suppression/565355/.
   Google Scholar
• Orser, Charles E., Jr. 1988. The Material Basis of the Postbellum Tenant Plantation: Historical Archaeology in the South Carolina Piedmont. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
   Google Scholar
• Otto, John S. 1975. “Status Differences and the Archaeological Record – A Comparison of the Planter, Overseer, and Slave Sites from Cannon’s Point Plantation, (1794-1861), St. Simon’s Island, Georgia.” PhD diss., University of Florida.
   Google Scholar
• Otto, John S. 1986. “The Origins of Cattle-Ranching in Colonial South Carolina, 1670-1715.” The South Carolina Historical Magazine 87 (2): 117–124.
   Google Scholar
• Otto, John Solomon, and Augustus Marion Burns III. 1983. “Black Folks and Poor Buckras: Archaeological Evidence of Slave and Overseer Living Conditions on an Antebellum Plantation.” Journal of Black Studies 14 (2): 185–200.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peres, Tanya M. 2010. “Methodological Issues in Zooarchaeology.” In Integrating Zooarchaeology and Paleoethnobotany: A Consideration of Issues, Methods, and Cases, edited by Amber M. VanDerwarker, and Tanya M. Peres, 15–36. New York: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Pyszka, Kimberly, and Maureen Hays. 2016. “Dixie Plantation’s Rising Tide: A History of Saint Paul’s Parish in Microcosm.” The South Carolina Historical Magazine 117 (1): 30–61.
   Google Scholar
• Reitz, Elizabeth J., T. Gibbs, and T. A. Rathbun. 1985. “Archaeological Evidence for Subsistence on Coastal Plantations.” In The Archaeology of Slavery and Plantation Life, edited by Theresa A. Singleton, 163–191. Orlando: Academy Press.
   Google Scholar
• Reitz, Elizabeth J., and Elizabeth Wing. 1999. Zooarchaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Robinson, Sallie Ann. 2007. Cooking the Gullah Way: Morning, Noon, and Night. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rose, Willie Lee. 1999. Rehearsal for Reconstruction: The Port Royal Experiment. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rothstein, Richard. 2017. The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. New York: Liveright.
   Google Scholar
• Rugemer, Edward B. 2013. “The Development of Mastery and Race in the Comprehensive Slave Codes of the Greater Caribbean During the Seventeenth Century.” The William and Mary Quarterly 70 (3): 429–458.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rush, J. F., and J. Sam Taylor. 1950. Acreage, Production, and Value of Commercial Vegetable Crops in South Carolina, 1918-1949. Clemson: South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station of Clemson Agricultural College.
   Google Scholar
• Schulz, Peter D., and Sherri M. Gust. 1983. “Faunal Remains and Social Status in 19th Century Sacramento.” Historical Archaeology 17 (1): 44–53.
   Google Scholar
• Shields, David S. 2015. Southern Provisions: The Creation and Revival of a Cuisine. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sims, Caldwell. 1941a. “Stories from Ex-Slaves” In Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves, Vol. 14, South Carolina, Part 1, Abrams-Durant, edited by the Federal Writer's Project, 80–88. Washington, DC: Library of Congress.
   Google Scholar
• Sims, Caldwell. 1941b. “Reminiscences: The Red Shirts” In Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States from Interviews with Former Slaves, Vol. 14, South Carolina, Part 1, Abrams-Durant, edited by the Federal Writer's Project, 70-73. Washington, DC: Library of Congress.
   Google Scholar
• Singleton, Theresa A. 1980. The Archaeology of Afro-American Slavery in Coastal Georgia: A Regional Perception of Slave Household and Community Patterns. Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, Gainesville.
   Google Scholar
• Steen, Carl, and Jodi A. Barnes. 2010. “Okra Soup and Earthenware Pots: The Archaeology of Gullah Communities.” The African Diaspora Archaeology Network Newsletter, 13(4): Article 2. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1456&context=adan.
   Google Scholar
• Stoesz, David. 2016. The Excluded: An Estimate of the Consequences of Denying Social Security to Agricultural and Domestic Workers. Center for Social Development Working Paper, No. 16-17. St. Louis, Missouri: Washington University, Center for Social Development.
   Google Scholar
• Swanson, Drew A. 2011. Remaking Wormsloe Plantation: The Environmental History of a Lowcountry Landscape. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, Brian W. 1998. “Power and Community: The Archaeology of Slavery at the Hermitage Plantation.” American Antiquity 63 (40): 531–551.
   Google Scholar
• Tuma, Michael W. 2006. “Ethnoarchaeology of Subsistence Behaviors within a Rural African American Community: Implications for Interpreting Vertebrate Faunal Data from Slave Quarter Ares of Antebellum Plantation Sites.” Historical Archaeology 40 (4): 1–26.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyson, Jackie, Kristie Lockerman, and Mary Beth Reed. 2013. Rural Commerce in Context: South Carolina’s Country Stores, 1850-1950. Final Technical Report No. 2159, New South Associates. Prepared for the South Carolina Department of Transportation.
   Google Scholar
• United States. 1850. U.S. Census of Agricultural.
   Google Scholar
• United States. 1860. U.S. Census of Agricultural.
   Google Scholar
• United States Congress. 2005. Records of the Field Offices for the State of South Carolina, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, 1865–1872. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Online Virtual Archive. https://nmaahc.si.edu/object/sova_nmaahc.fb.m1910.
   Google Scholar
• Van Auken, Sheldon. 1950. “A Century of the Southern Plantation.” The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 58 (3): 356–387.
   Google Scholar
• Wallach, Jennifer Jensen. 2015. “Dethroning the Deceitful Pork Chop: Food Reform at the Tuskegee Institute.” In Dethroning the Deceitful Pork Chop: Rethinking African American Foodways from Slavery to Obama, edited by Jennifer Jensen Wallach, 165–179. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas.
   Google Scholar
• Wallman, Diane. 2014. “Negotiating the Plantation Structure: An Archaeological Investigation of Slavery, Subsistence and Daily Practice at Habitation Créve Cœur, Martinique, ca. 1760-1890.” Ph.D. diss., University of South Carolina, Columbia.
   Google Scholar
• Wheaton, Thomas R., Amy Friedlander, and Patrick H. Garrow. 1983. Yaughan and Curriboo Plantations: Studies in Afro-American Archaeology. Report submitted to the National Park Service, Southeast Regional Office, Archaeological Services Branch, Contract Number C-5950 (79). Marietta, Georgia: Soil Systems, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Williamson, Joel. 1965. After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction, 1861-1877. New York: The Norton Library.
   Google Scholar
• Wolf, Eric R. 1982. Europe and the People Without History. Berkeley: University of California.
   Google Scholar
• Wood, Peter H. 1974. Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 Through The Stono Rebellion. New York: W.W. Norton.
   Google Scholar
• Wood, Betty. 1995. Women’s Work, Men’s Work: The Informal Slave Economies of Lowcountry Georgia. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
   Google Scholar
• Yetman, Norman R. 1984. “Ex-Slave Interviews and the Historiography of Slavery.” American Quarterly 36 (2): 181–210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zierden, Martha A., and Elizabeth J. Reitz. 2009. “Animal Use and the Urban Landscape in Colonial Charleston, South Carolina, USA.” International Journal of Historical Archaeology 13 (3): 327–365.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar