Exiles and Arms: The Territorial Practices of State Making and War Diffusion in Post–Cold War Africa

REFERENCES

• Agnew J. (1994) The territorial trap: The geographical assumptions of International Relations theory, Review of International Political Economy 1(1), 53–80. doi: 10.1080/09692299408434268
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agnew J. (2005) Sovereignty regimes: territoriality and state authority in contemporary world politics, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 95(2), 437–461. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8306.2005.00468.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen J. (2003) Lost Geographies of Power. Blackwell, Malden, MA.
   Google Scholar
• Bøås M. and Dunn K. (2007) in Bøås M. and Dunn K. (Eds) African Guerrillas: Raging Against the Machine. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, CO.
   Google Scholar
• Boone C. (2003) Political Topographies of the African State: Territorial Authority and Institutional Choice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• Borgatti S. (2005) UCINET 6 Social Network Analysis Software. Analytic Technologies, Harvard, MA.
   Google Scholar
• Bratton M. (1995) Are competitive elections enough?, Africa Demos 3(4), 7–8.
   Google Scholar
• Bratton M. and Van De Walle N. (1997) Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in a Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• Bryden A. and Caparini M. (2006) Private Actors and Security Governance. Lit Verlag, Zurich/Munster.
   Google Scholar
• Buhaug H. and Gates S. (2002) The geography of civil war, Journal of Peace Research 39(4), 417–433. doi: 10.1177/0022343302039004003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clapham C. (1993) Democratization in Africa: obstacles and prospects, Third World Quarterly 14(3), 423–438. doi: 10.1080/01436599308420335
   Google Scholar
• Clark J. (2002a) Causes and consequences of the Congo War, in Clark J. (Eds) The African Stakes of the Congo War, pp. 1–10. Palgrave MacMillian, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Clark J. (2002b) Museveni's adventure in the Congo war: Uganda's Vietnam?, in Clark J. (Eds) The African Stakes of the Congo War, pp. 145–165. Palgrave MacMillan, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Coghlan B., Ngoy P., Mulumba F., Hardy C., Bemo V., Stewart T., Lewis J. and Brennan R. (2007) Mortality in the Democratic Republic of Congo: an ongoing crisis, International Rescue Committee (available at: http://www.theirc.org/resources/2007/2006-7_congomortalitysurvey.pdf) (accessed on 10 November 2012).
   Google Scholar
• Delaney D. (2005) Territory: A Short Introduction. Blackwell, Oxford.
   Google Scholar
• Doom R. and Vlassenroot K. (1999) Kony's message: a new Koine? The Lord's resistance army in northern Uganda, African Affairs 98(390), 5–36. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a008002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elden S. (2009) Terror and Territory: The Spatial Extent of Sovereignty. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
   Google Scholar
• Emirbayer M. and Goodwin J. (1994) Network analysis, culture, and the problem of agency, American Journal of Sociology 99(6), 1411–1454. doi: 10.1086/230450
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flint C. (Eds) (2005) The Geography of War and Peace: From Death Camps to Diplomats. Oxford University Press, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Flint C., Diehl P., Scheffran J., Vasquez J. and Chi S.-H. (2009) Conceptualizing ConflictSpace: towards a geography of relational power and embeddedness in the analysis of interstate conflict, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 99(5), 827–835. doi: 10.1080/00045600903253312
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbon P., Bangura Y. and Ofstaad A. (1992) in Gibbon P., Bangura Y. and Ofstaad A. (Eds) Authoritarianism, Democracy and Adjustment: The Politics of Economic Reform in Africa. Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala.
   Google Scholar
• Gibler D. (2000) Alliances: why some cause war and others cause peace, in Vasquez J. (Eds) What Do We Know About War?, pp. 145–164. Rowan and Littlefield Press, Lanham, MD.
   Google Scholar
• Gibler D. and Sarkees M. (2004) Measuring alliances: the Correlates of War formal interstate alliance data set, 1816–2000, Journal of Peace Research 41(2), 211–222. doi: 10.1177/0022343304041061
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gregory D. and Pred A. (Eds) (2007) Violent Geographies: Fear, Terror, and Political Violence. Routledge, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Hafner-Burton E. and Montgomery A. (2006) Power positions: international organizations, social networks, and conflict, Journal of Conflict Resolution 50(1), 3–27. doi: 10.1177/0022002705281669
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hafner-Burton E., Kahler M. and Montgomery A. (2009) Network analysis for international relations, International Organization 63(3), 559–592. doi: 10.1017/S0020818309090195
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammarström M. and Heldt B. (2002) The diffusion of military intervention: testing a network position approach, International Interactions 28(4), 355–377. doi: 10.1080/03050620214758
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herbst J. (2000) States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
   Google Scholar
• Hoff P. and Ward M. (2004) Modeling dependencies in international relations networks, Political Analysis 12(2), 160–175. doi: 10.1093/pan/mph012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogg J. (2012, Nov. 20) Congo rebels seize eastern city as U.N. forces look on. Reuters. (available at: http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/11/20/us-congo-democratic-idUSBRE8AI0UO20121120) (accessed on 21 December 2012).
   Google Scholar
• Huntington S. (1991) The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK.
   Google Scholar
• Joseph R. (1999) Africa, 1990–1997: from Abertura to closure, in Diamond L. and Plattner M. (Eds) Democratization in Africa, pp. 3–17. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.
   Google Scholar
• Kahler M. (2006) Territoriality and conflict in an era of globalization, in Kahler M. and Walter B. (Eds) Territoriality and Conflict in an Era of Globalization, pp. 1–21. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• Kuus M. and Agnew J. (2008) Theorizing the state geographically: sovereignty, subjectivity, territoriality, in Cox K., Low M. and Robinson J. (Eds) The SAGE Handbook of Political Geography, pp. 117–132. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
   Google Scholar
• Le Billon P. (2008) Diamond wars? Conflict diamonds and geographies of resource wars, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 98(2), 345–372. doi: 10.1080/00045600801922422
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leeds B., Ritter J., Mitchell S. and Long A. (2002) Alliance treaty obligations and provisions, 1815–1944, International Interactions 28(3), 237–260. doi: 10.1080/03050620213653
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lumumba-Kasongo T. (1998) The Rise of Multipartyism and Democracy in the Context of Global Change: The Case of Africa. Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT.
   Google Scholar
• Maoz Z. (2011) Networks of Nations: The Evolution, Structure, and Impact of International Networks, 1816–2001. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• Mozaffar S., Scarritt J. and Galaich G. (2003) Electoral institutions, ethnopolitical cleavages, and party systems in Africa's emerging democracies, American Political Science Review 97(3), 379–390. doi: 10.1017/S0003055403000753
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy A. (1996) The sovereign state system as political-territorial ideal: historical and contemporary considerations, in Biersteker T. and Weber C. (Eds) State Sovereignty as Social Construct, pp. 81–120. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• Nordstrom C. (2004) Shadows of War: Violence, Power, and International Profiteering in the Twenty-First Century. University of California Press, Berkeley.
   Google Scholar
• O'Loughlin J., Ward M., Lofdahl C., Cohen J., Brown D., Reilly D., Gleditsch K. and Shin M. (1998) The diffusion of democracy, 1946–1994, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 88(4), 545–574. doi: 10.1111/0004-5608.00112
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olukoshi A. and Laakso L. (Eds) (1996) Challenges to the Nation-State in Africa. Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala.
   Google Scholar
• Prunier G. (1995) The Rwanda Crisis: History of a Genocide. Columbia University Press, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Prunier G. (2009) Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe. Oxford University Press, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Radil S., Flint C. and Tita G. (2010) Spatializing social networks: using social network analysis to investigate geographies of gang rivalry, territoriality, and violence in Los Angeles, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 100(2), 307–326. doi: 10.1080/00045600903550428
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radil S., Flint C. and Chi S.-H. (forthcoming) A relational geography of war: actor-context interaction and the spread of World War I. Annals of the Association of American Geographers.
   Google Scholar
• Raleigh C., Linke A., Hegre H. and Karlsen J. (2010) Introducing ACLED: an armed conflict location and event database, Journal of Peace Research 47(5), 651–660. doi: 10.1177/0022343310378914
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reno W. (1998) Warlord Politics and African States. Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, CO.
   Google Scholar
• Reyntjens F. (2009) The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge University Press, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Rummel R. (1997) Power Kills: Democracy as a Method of Nonviolence. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ.
   Google Scholar
• Sack R. (1986) Human Territoriality: Its Theory and History. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• Scott J. (2000) Social Network Analysis: A Handbook. Sage, London.
   Google Scholar
• Siverson S. and Starr H. (1991) The Diffusion of War: A Study of Opportunity and Willingness. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, MI.
   Google Scholar
• Small M. and Singer J. (1976) The war proneness of democratic regimes, Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 1(4), 50–69.
   Google Scholar
• Straus S. (2012) Wars do end! Changing patterns of political violence in sub-Saharan Africa, African Affairs 111(443), 179–201. doi: 10.1093/afraf/ads015
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner T. (2007) The Congo Wars: Conflict, Myth and Reality. Zed, New York.
   Google Scholar
• Turner T. (2013) Congo. Polity, Malden, MA.
   Google Scholar
• Walt S. (1998) International relations: one world, many theories, Foreign Policy 110(2), 29–45. doi: 10.2307/1149275
   Google Scholar
• Wasserman S. and Faust K. (1994) Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
   Google Scholar
• Watts M. (2004) Antimonies of community: some thoughts on geography, resources, and empire, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 29(2), 195–216. doi: 10.1111/j.0020-2754.2004.00125.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar