117
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Association between intelligence quotient scores and body mass index in pediatric multiple sclerosis

, , &

References

  • Alosco, M. L., Stanek, K. M., Galioto, R., Korgaonkar, M. S., Grieve, S. M., Brickman, A. M., Spitznagel, M. B., & Gunstad, J. (2014). Body mass index and brain structure in healthy children and adolescents. The International Journal of Neuroscience, 124(1), 49–55. https://doi.org/10.3109/00207454.2013.817408
  • Alroughani, R., & Boyko, A. (2018). Pediatric multiple sclerosis: A review. BMC Neurology, 18(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-018-1026-3
  • Amato, M. P., Goretti, B., Ghezzi, A., Hakiki, B., Niccolai, C., Lori, S., Moiola, L., Falautano, M., Viterbo, R. G., Patti, F., Cilia, S., Pozzilli, C., Bianchi, V., Roscio, M., Martinelli, V., Comi, G., Portaccio, E., & Trojano, M. (2014). Neuropsychological features in childhood and juvenile multiple sclerosis: Five-year follow-up. Neurology, 83(16), 1432–1438. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000000885
  • Amato, M. P., Goretti, B., Ghezzi, A., Lori, S., Zipoli, V., Moiola, L., Falautano, M., De Caro, M. F., Viterbo, R., Patti, F., Vecchio, R., Pozzilli, C., Bianchi, V., Roscio, M., Martinelli, V., Comi, G., Portaccio, E., & Trojano, M. (2010). Cognitive and psychosocial features in childhood and juvenile MS: Two-year follow-up. Neurology, 75(13), 1134–1140. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181f4d821
  • Amato, M. P., Goretti, B., Ghezzi, A., Lori, S., Zipoli, V., Portaccio, E., Moiola, L., Falautano, M., De Caro, M. F., Lopez, M., Patti, F., Vecchio, R., Pozzilli, C., Bianchi, V., Roscio, M., Comi, G., & Trojano, M. (2008). Cognitive and psychosocial features of childhood and juvenile MS. Neurology, 70(20), 1891–1897. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000312276.23177.fa
  • Amato, M. P., Krupp, L. B., Charvet, L. E., Penner, I., & Till, C. (2016). Pediatric multiple sclerosis: Cognition and mood. Neurology, 87(9 Suppl 2), S82–S87. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000002883
  • Antunes, H., Santos, C., & Carvalho, S. (2008). Serum leptin levels in overweight children and adolescents. British Journal of Nutrition, 101(8), 1262–1266. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114508055682
  • Arnold, D. L., Banwell, B., Bar-Or, A., Ghezzi, A., Greenberg, B. M., Waubant, E., Giovannoni, G., Wolinsky, J. S., Gärtner, J., Rostásy, K., Krupp, L., Tardieu, M., Brück, W., Stites, T. E., Pearce, G. L., Häring, D. A., Merschhemke, M., & Chitnis, T. (2020). Effect of fingolimod on MRI outcomes in patients with paediatric-onset multiple sclerosis: Results from the phase 3 PARADIGMS study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 91(5), 483–492. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2019-322138
  • Aubert-Broche, B., Fonov, V., Narayanan, S., Arnold, D. L., Araujo, D., Fetco, D., Till, C., Sled, J. G., Banwell, B., & Collins, D. L. (2014). Onset of multiple sclerosis before adulthood leads to failure of age-expected brain growth. Neurology, 83(23), 2140–2146. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000001045
  • Azary, S., Schreiner, T., Graves, J., Waldman, A., Belman, A., Guttman, B. W., Aaen, G., Tillema, J. M., Mar, S., Hart, J., Ness, J., Harris, Y., Krupp, L., Gorman, M., Benson, L., Rodriguez, M., Chitnis, T., Rose, J., Barcellos, L. F., … Waubant, E. (2018). Contribution of dietary intake to relapse rate in early paediatric multiple sclerosis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 89(1), 28–33. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2017-315936
  • Banwell, B. L., & Anderson, P. E. (2005). The cognitive burden of multiple sclerosis in children. Neurology, 64(5), 891–894. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.WNL.0000152896.35341.51
  • Barlow, S. E. (2007). Expert Committee recommendations regarding the prevention, assessment, and treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity: Summary report. Pediatrics, 120(Supplement_4), S164–S192. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-2329C
  • Bartlett, E., Shaw, M., Schwarz, C., Feinberg, C., DeLorenzo, C., Krupp, L. B., & Charvet, L. E. (2019). Brief computer-based information processing measures are linked to white matter integrity in pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis. Journal of Neuroimaging, 29(1), 140–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/jon.12566
  • Belman, A. L., Krupp, L. B., Olsen, C. S., Rose, J. W., Aaen, G., Benson, L., Chitnis, T., Gorman, M., Graves, J., Harris, Y., Lotze, T., Ness, J., Rodriguez, M., Tillema, J. M., Waubant, E., Weinstock-Guttman, B., & Casper, T. C. (2016). Characteristics of children and adolescents with multiple sclerosis. Pediatrics, 138(1), e20160120. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-0120
  • Belsky, D. W., Caspi, A., Goldman-Mellor, S., Meier, M. H., Ramrakha, S., Poulton, R., & Moffitt, T. E. (2013). Is obesity associated with a decline in intelligence quotient during the first half of the life course? American Journal of Epidemiology, 178(9), 1461–1468. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwt135
  • Bethune, A., Tipu, V., Sled, J. G., Narayanan, S., Arnold, D. L., Mabbott, D., Rockel, C., Ghassemi, R., Till, C., & Banwell, B. (2011). Diffusion tensor imaging and cognitive speed in children with multiple sclerosis. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 309(1-2), 68–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2011.07.019
  • Blum, W. F., Englaro, P., Hanitsch, S., Juul, A., Hertel, N. T., Müller, J., Skakkebaek, N. E., Heiman, M. L., Birkett, M., Attanasio, A. M., Kiess, W., & Rascher, W. (1997). Plasma leptin levels in healthy children and adolescents: Dependence on body mass index, body fat mass, gender, pubertal stage, and testosterone. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 82(9), 2904–2910.
  • Bourgognon, J. M., & Cavanagh, J. (2020). The role of cytokines in modulating learning and memory and brain plasticity. Brain and Neuroscience Advances, 4, 2398212820979802. https://doi.org/10.1177/2398212820979802
  • Bozkurt, H., Özer, S., Yılmaz, R., Sönmezgöz, E., Kazancı, Ö., Erbaş, O., & Demir, O. (2017). Assessment of neurocognitive functions in children and adolescents with obesity. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 6(4), 262–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2016.1150184
  • Brenton, J. N., Koshiya, H., Woolbright, E., & Goldman, M. D. (2019). The multiple sclerosis functional composite and symbol digit modalities test as outcome measures in pediatric multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis Journal – Experimental, Translational and Clinical, 5(2), 2055217319846141. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055217319846141
  • Brola, W., & Steinborn, B. (2020). Pediatric multiple sclerosis – Current status of epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment. Neurologia i Neurochirurgia Polska, 54(6), 508–517.
  • Carlsson, B., Ankarberg, C., Rosberg, S., Norjavaara, E., Albertsson-Wikland, K., & Carlsson, L. M. (1997). Serum leptin concentrations in relation to pubertal development. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 77(5), 396–400. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.77.5.396
  • Chandola, T., Deary, I. J., Blane, D., & Batty, G. D. (2006). Childhood IQ in relation to obesity and weight gain in adult life: The National Child Development (1958) Study. International Journal of Obesity, 30(9), 1422–1432. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0803279
  • Charvet, L. E., Cleary, R. E., Vazquez, K., Belman, A. L., & Krupp, L. B.. (2014). Social cognition in pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis (MS). Multiple Sclerosis, 20(11), 1478–1484. https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458514526942
  • Chitnis, T., Arnold, D. L., Banwell, B., Brück, W., Ghezzi, A., Giovannoni, G., Greenberg, B., Krupp, L., Rostásy, K., Tardieu, M., Waubant, E., Wolinsky, J. S., Bar-Or, A., Stites, T., Chen, Y., Putzki, N., Merschhemke, M., Gärtner, J., & PARADIGMS, S. G. (2018). Trial of fingolimod versus interferon beta-1a in pediatric multiple sclerosis. New England Journal of Medicine, 379(11), 1017–1027. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1800149
  • Chitnis, T., Graves, J., Weinstock‐Guttman, B., Belman, A., Olsen, C., Misra, M., Aaen, G., Benson, L., Candee, M., Gorman, M., Greenberg, B., Krupp, L., Lotze, T., Mar, S., Ness, J., Rose, J., Rubin, J., Schreiner, T., Tillema, J., … Waubant, E. (2016). Distinct effects of obesity and puberty on risk and age at onset of pediatric MS. Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology, 3(12), 897–907. https://doi.org/10.1002/acn3.365
  • Chitnis, T., Tenembaum, S., Banwell, B., Krupp, L., Pohl, D., Rostasy, K., Yeh, E. A., Bykova, O., Wassmer, E., Tardieu, M., Kornberg, A., & Ghezzi, A. (2012). Consensus statement: Evaluation of new and existing therapeutics for pediatric multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis, 18(1), 116–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458511430704
  • Cserjési, R., Molnár, D., Luminet, O., & Lénárd, L. (2007). Is there any relationship between obesity and mental flexibility in children? Appetite, 49(3), 675–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2007.04.001
  • Davis, C. L., & Cooper, S. (2011). Fitness, fatness, cognition, behavior, and academic achievement among overweight children: Do cross-sectional associations correspond to exercise trial outcomes? Preventive Medicine, 52, S65–S69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.01.020
  • De Meo, E., Meani, A., Moiola, L., Ghezzi, A., Veggiotti, P., Filippi, M., & Rocca, M. A. (2019). Dynamic gray matter volume changes in pediatric multiple sclerosis: A 3.5 year MRI study. Neurology, 92(15), e1709–e1723.
  • Delgado-Rico, E., Río‐Valle, J. S., González‐Jiménez, E., Campoy, C., & Verdejo‐García, A. (2012). BMI predicts emotion-driven impulsivity and cognitive inflexibility in adolescents with excess weight. Obesity, 20(8), 1604–1610. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2012.47
  • Donzis, E. J., & Tronson, N. C. (2014). Modulation of learning and memory by cytokines: Signaling mechanisms and long term consequences. Neurobiology of Learning and memory, 115, 68–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2014.08.008
  • Duignan, S., Brownlee, W., Wassmer, E., Hemingway, C., Lim, M., Ciccarelli, O., & Hacohen, Y. (2019). Paediatric multiple sclerosis: A new era in diagnosis and treatment. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 61(9), 1039–1049. https://doi.org/10.1111/dmcn.14212
  • Fernandez-Carbonell, C., Charvet, L. E., & Krupp, L. B. (2021). Enhancing mood, cognition, and quality of life in pediatric multiple sclerosis. Pediatric Drugs, 23(4), 317–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40272-021-00451-5
  • Frithioff‐Bøjsøe, C., Lund, M. A., Lausten‐Thomsen, U., Hedley, P. L., Pedersen, O., Christiansen, M., Baker, J. L., Hansen, T., & Holm, J. C. (2020). Leptin, adiponectin, and their ratio as markers of insulin resistance and cardiometabolic risk in childhood obesity. Pediatric Diabetes, 21(2), 194–202. https://doi.org/10.1111/pedi.12964
  • Fuentes, A., Collins, D. L., Garcia-Lorenzo, D., Sled, J. G., Narayanan, S., Arnold, D. L., Banwell, B. L., & Till, C. (2012). Memory performance and normalized regional brain volumes in patients with pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 18(03), 471–480. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617711001913
  • Ghezzi, A., Banwell, B., Boyko, A., Amato, M. P., Anlar, B., Blinkenberg, M., Boon, M., Filippi, M., Jozwiak, S., Ketelslegers, I., Kornek, B., Lim, M., Lindstrom, E., Nadj, C., Neuteboom, R., Rocca, M. A., Rostasy, K., Tardieu, M., Wassmer, E., Catsman-Berrevoets, C., & Hintzen, R. (2010). Meeting review: The management of multiple sclerosis in children: A European view. Multiple Sclerosis, 16(10), 1258–1267. https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458510375568
  • Gianfrancesco, M. A., Stridh, P., Rhead, B., Shao, X., Xu, E., Graves, J. S., Chitnis, T., Waldman, A., Lotze, T., Schreiner, T., Belman, A., Greenberg, B., Weinstock-Guttman, B., Aaen, G., Tillema, J. M., Hart, J., Caillier, S., Ness, J., Harris, Y., … Waubant, E. (2017). Evidence for a causal relationship between low vitamin D, high BMI, and pediatric-onset MS. Neurology, 88(17), 1623–1629. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003849
  • Green, R., Adler, A., Banwell, B. L., Fabri, T. L., Yeh, E. A., Collins, D. L., Sled, J. G., Narayanan, S., & Till, C. (2018). Involvement of the amygdala in memory and psychosocial functioning in pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis. Developmental Neuropsychology, 43(6), 524–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2018.1485679
  • Hosseini, B., Flora, D. B., Banwell, B. L., & Till, C. (2014). Age of onset as a moderator of cognitive decline in pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 20(8), 796–804. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617714000642
  • Huppke, B., Ellenberger, D., Hummel, H., Stark, W., Röbl, M., Gärtner, J., & Huppke, P. (2019). Association of obesity with multiple sclerosis risk and response to first-line disease modifying drugs in children. JAMA Neurology, 76(10), 1157–1165. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2019.1997
  • Huppke, B., Ellenberger, D., Rosewich, H., Friede, T., Gärtner, J., & Huppke, P. (2014). Clinical presentation of pediatric multiple sclerosis before puberty. European Journal of Neurology, 21(3), 441–446. https://doi.org/10.1111/ene.12327
  • Jeong, A., Oleske, D. M., & Holman, J. (2019). Epidemiology of pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Child Neurology, 34(12), 705–712. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073819845827
  • Johnen, A., Elpers, C., Riepl, E., Landmeyer, N. C., Krämer, J., Polzer, P., Lohmann, H., Omran, H., Wiendl, H., Göbel, K., & Meuth, S. G. (2019). Early effective treatment may protect from cognitive decline in paediatric multiple sclerosis. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology, 23(6), 783–791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2019.08.007
  • Julian, L., Serafin, D., Charvet, L., Ackerson, J., Benedict, R., Braaten, E., Brown, T., O'Donnell, E., Parrish, J., Preston, T., Zaccariello, M., Belman, A., Chitnis, T., Gorman, M., Ness, J., Patterson, M., Rodriguez, M., Waubant, E., Weinstock-Guttman, B., Yeh, A., & Krupp, L. B. (2013). Cognitive impairment occurs in children and adolescents with multiple sclerosis: Results from a United States network. Journal of Child Neurology, 28(1), 102–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073812464816
  • Kamijo, K., Khan, N. A., Pontifex, M. B., Scudder, M. R., Drollette, E. S., Raine, L. B., Evans, E. M., Castelli, D. M., & Hillman, C. H. (2012). The relation of adiposity to cognitive control and scholastic achievement in preadolescent children. Obesity, 20(12), 2406–2411. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2012.112
  • Kanazawa, S. (2013). Childhood intelligence and adult obesity. Obesity, 21(3), 434–440. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.20018
  • Kapanci, T., Rostásy, K., Häusler, M. G., Geis, T., Schimmel, M., Elpers, C., Kreth, J. H., Thiels, C., & Troche, S. J. (2019). Evaluating the relationship between psychometric intelligence and cognitive functions in paediatric multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis Journal - Experimental, Translational and clinical, 5(4), 2055217319894365. https://doi.org/10.1177/2055217319894365
  • Kerbrat, A., Aubert-Broche, B., Fonov, V., Narayanan, S., Sled, J. G., Arnold, D. A., Banwell, B., & Collins, D. L. (2012). Reduced head and brain size for age and disproportionately smaller thalami in child-onset MS. Neurology, 78(3), 194–201. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318240799a
  • Kopp, T. I., Blinkenberg, M., Chalmer, T. A., Petersen, T., Ravnborg, M. H., Soelberg Sørensen, P., & Magyari, M. (2020). Predictors of treatment outcome in patients with paediatric onset multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis, 26(8), 964–975. https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458519846100
  • Krupp, L. B., Vieira, M. C., Toledano, H., Peneva, D., Druyts, E., Wu, P., & Boulos, F. C. (2019). A review of available treatments, clinical evidence, and guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of pediatric multiple sclerosis in the United States. Journal of Child Neurology, 34(10), 612–620. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073819855592
  • Langer-Gould, A., Brara, S. M., Beaber, B. E., & Koebnick, C. (2013). Childhood obesity and risk of pediatric multiple sclerosis and clinically isolated syndrome. Neurology, 80(6), 548–552. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e31828154f3
  • Langille, M. M., Rutatangwa, A., & Francisco, C. (2019). Pediatric multiple sclerosis: A review. Advances in Pediatrics, 66, 209–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yapd.2019.03.003
  • Laurent, J. S., Watts, R., Adise, S., Allgaier, N., Chaarani, B., Garavan, H., Potter, A., & Mackey, S. (2020). Associations among body mass index, cortical thickness, and executive function in children. JAMA Pediatrics, 174(2), 170–177. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.4708
  • Li, Y., Dai, Q., Jackson, J. C., & Zhang, J. (2008). Overweight is associated with decreased cognitive functioning among school‐age children and adolescents. Obesity, 16(8), 1809–1815. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2008.296
  • Lobstein, T., Baur, L., & Uauy, R. (2004). Obesity in children and young people: A crisis in public health. Obesity Reviews, 5(s1), 4–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2004.00133.x
  • Lokken, K. L., Boeka, A. G., Austin, H. M., Gunstad, J., & Harmon, C. M. (2009). Evidence of executive dysfunction in extremely obese adolescents: A pilot study. Surgery for Obesity and Related Diseases, 5(5), 547–552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soard.2009.05.008
  • Lori, S., Portaccio, E., Zipoli, V., Giannini, M., Scarpelli, S., Goretti, B., & Amato, M. P. (2011). Cognitive impairment and event-related potentials in paediatric multiple sclerosis: 2-year study. Neurological Sciences, 32(6), 1043–1046. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-011-0602-8
  • Lynch, K. M., Page, K. A., Shi, Y., Xiang, A. H., Toga, A. W., & Clark, K. A. (2021). The effect of body mass index on hippocampal morphology and memory performance in late childhood and adolescence. Hippocampus, 31(2), 189–200. https://doi.org/10.1002/hipo.23280
  • Maayan, L., Hoogendoorn, C., Sweat, V., & Convit, A. (2011). Disinhibited eating in obese adolescents is associated with orbitofrontal volume reductions and executive dysfunction. Obesity, 19(7), 1382–1387. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2011.15
  • MacAllister, W. S., Belman, A. L., Milazzo, M. P. N. P., Weisbrot, D. M., Christodoulou, C., Scherl, W. F., Preston, T. E., Cianciulli, C., & Krupp, L. B. (2005). Cognitive functioning in children and adolescents with multiple sclerosis. Neurology, 64(8), 1422–1425. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.WNL.0000158474.24191.BC
  • MacAllister, W. S., Christodoulou, C., Milazzo, M., & Krupp, L. B. (2007). Longitudinal neuropsychological assessment in pediatric multiple sclerosis. Developmental Neuropsychology, 32(2), 625–644. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640701375872
  • Mărginean, C. O., Meliţ, L. E., Ghiga, D. V., & Mărginean, M. O. (2019). Early inflammatory status related to pediatric obesity. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 7, 241. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2019.00241
  • Margoni, M., Franciotta, S., Poggiali, D., Riccardi, A., Rinaldi, F., Nosadini, M., Sartori, S., Anglani, M. G., Causin, F., Perini, P., & Gallo, P. (2020). Cerebellar gray matter lesions are common in pediatric multiple sclerosis at clinical onset. Journal of Neurology, 267(6), 1824–1829. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-020-09776-6
  • Marin, S. E., Banwell, B. B., & Till, C. (2013). Cognitive trajectories in 4 patients with pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis: Serial evaluation over a decade. Journal of Child Neurology, 28(12), 1577–1586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073812465010
  • McAfoose, J., & Baune, B. T. (2009). Evidence for a cytokine model of cognitive function. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 33(3), 355–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.10.005
  • Milles, P., De Filippo, G., Maurey, H., Tully, T., & Deiva, K. (2021). Obesity in pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis: A French cohort study. Neurology-Neuroimmunology Neuroinflammation, 8(5), e1044.
  • Montiel-Nava, C., Peña, J. A., González-Pernía, S., & Mora-La Cruz, E. (2009). Cognitive functioning in children with multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis, 15(2), 266–268. https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458508097471
  • Ochi, H. (2017). Clinical features, diagnosis, and therapeutic strategies in pediatric multiple sclerosis. Clinical and Experimental Neuroimmunology, 8, 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/cen3.12347
  • Öztürk, Z., Gücüyener, K., Soysal, Ş., Konuşkan, G. D., Konuşkan, B., Dikmen, A. U., & Anlar, B. (2020). Cognitive functions in pediatric multiple sclerosis: 2-years follow-up. Neurological Research, 42(2), 159–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/01616412.2019.1710417
  • Padilha, I. G., Fonseca, A. P., Pettengill, A. L., Fragoso, D. C., Pacheco, F. T., Nunes, R. H., Maia, A. C. M., & da Rocha, A. J. (2020). Pediatric multiple sclerosis: From clinical basis to imaging spectrum and differential diagnosis. Pediatric Radiology, 50(6), 776–792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00247-019-04582-3
  • Pastò, L., Portaccio, E., Goretti, B., Ghezzi, A., Lori, S., Hakiki, B., Giannini, M., Righini, I., Razzolini, L., Niccolai, C., Moiola, L., Falautano, M., Simone, M., Viterbo, R. G., Patti, F., Cilia, S., Pozzilli, C., Bianchi, V., Roscio, M., … Amato, M. P. (2016). The cognitive reserve theory in the setting of pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis, 22(13), 1741–1749. https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458516629559
  • Pilcova, R., Sulcova, J., Hill, M., Blaha, P., & Lisa, L. (2003). Leptin levels in obese children: Effects of gender, weight reduction, and androgens. Physiological Research, 52(1), 53–60.
  • Pîrsean, C., Neguț, C., Stefan-van Staden, R. I., Dinu-Pirvu, C. E., Armean, P., & Udeanu, D. I. (2019). The salivary levels of leptin and interleukin-6 as potential inflammatory markers in children obesity. PLoS One, 14(1), e0210288. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210288
  • Rocca, M. A., Absinta, M., Amato, M. P., Moiola, L., Ghezzi, A., Veggiotti, P., Capra, R., Portaccio, E., Fiorino, A., Pippolo, L., Pera, M. C., Horsfield, M. A., Falini, A., Comi, G., & Filippi, M. (2014). Posterior brain damage and cognitive impairment in pediatric multiple sclerosis. Neurology, 82(15), 1314–1321. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000000309
  • Ronan, L., Alexander-Bloch, A., & Fletcher, P. C. (2020). Childhood obesity, cortical structure, and executive function in healthy children. Cerebral Cortex, 30(4), 2519–2528. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhz257
  • Smerbeck, A. M., Parrish, J., Serafin, D., Yeh, E. A., Weinstock-Guttman, B., Hoogs, M., Krupp, L. B., & Benedict, R. H. B. (2011). Visual-cognitive processing deficits in pediatric multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis Journal, 17(4), 449–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458510391689
  • Steinberger, J., Steffen, L., Jacobs, D. R., Jr, Moran, A., Hong, C. P., & Sinaiko, A. R. (2003). Relation of leptin to insulin resistance syndrome in children. Obesity Research, 11(9), 1124–1130. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2003.153
  • Sweat, V., Yates, K. F., Migliaccio, R., & Convit, A. (2017). Obese adolescents show reduced cognitive processing speed compared with healthy weight peers. Childhood Obesity, 13(3), 190–196. https://doi.org/10.1089/chi.2016.0255
  • Tabriz, A. A., Sohrabi, M. R., Parsay, S., Abadi, A., Kiapour, N., Aliyari, M., Ahmadi, F., & Roodaki, A. (2015). Relation of intelligence quotient and body mass index in preschool children: A community-based cross-sectional study. Nutrition & Diabetes, 5(8), e176–e176. https://doi.org/10.1038/nutd.2015.27
  • Tardieu, M., Banwell, B., Wolinsky, J. S., Pohl, D., & Krupp, L. B. (2016). Consensus definitions for pediatric MS and other demyelinating disorders in childhood. Neurology, 87(9 Suppl 2), S8–S11. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000002877
  • Till, C., Ghassemi, R., Aubert-Broche, B., Kerbrat, A., Collins, D. L., Narayanan, S., Arnold, D. L., Desrocher, M., Sled, J. G., & Banwell, B. L. (2011). MRI correlates of cognitive impairment in childhood-onset multiple sclerosis. Neuropsychology, 25(3), 319–332. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022051
  • Till, C., Ho, C., Dudani, A., Garcia-Lorenzo, D., Collins, D. L., & Banwell, B. L. (2012). Magnetic resonance imaging predictors of executive functioning in patients with pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27(5), 495–509. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acs058
  • Till, C., Racine, N., Araujo, D., Narayanan, S., Collins, D. L., Aubert-Broche, B., Arnold, D. L., & Banwell, B. (2013). Changes in cognitive performance over a 1-year period in children and adolescents with multiple sclerosis. Neuropsychology, 27(2), 210–219. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031665
  • Todendi, P. F., Possuelo, L. G., Klinger, E. I., Reuter, C. P., Burgos, M. S., Moura, D. J., Fiegenbaum, M., & de Moura Valim, A. R. (2016). Low-grade inflammation markers in children and adolescents: Influence of anthropometric characteristics and CRP and IL6 polymorphisms. Cytokine, 88, 177–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2016.09.007
  • Verdejo-García, A., Pérez‐Expósito, M., Schmidt‐Río‐Valle, J., Fernández‐Serrano, M. J., Cruz, F., Pérez‐García, M., López‐Belmonte, G., Martín‐Matillas, M., Martín‐Lagos, J. A., Marcos, A., & Campoy, C. (2010). Selective alterations within executive functions in adolescents with excess weight. Obesity, 18(8), 1572–1578. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2009.475
  • Visser, M., Bouter, L. M., McQuillan, G. M., Wener, M. H., & Harris, T. B. (2001). Low-grade systemic inflammation in overweight children. Pediatrics, 107(1), E13. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.107.1.e13
  • Wabitsch, M., Blum, W. F., Muche, R., Braun, M., Hube, F., Rascher, W., Heinze, E., Teller, W., & Hauner, H. (1997). Contribution of androgens to the gender difference in leptin production in obese children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 100(4), 808–813. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI119595
  • Waldman, A. T., Gorman, M. P., Rensel, M. R., Austin, T. E., Hertz, D. P., & Kuntz, N. L. (2011). Management of pediatric central nervous system demyelinating disorders: Consensus of United States neurologists. Journal of Child Neurology, 26(6), 675–682. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073810395141
  • Waldman, A., Ness, J., Pohl, D., Simone, I. L., Anlar, B., Amato, M. P., & Ghezzi, A. (2016). Pediatric multiple sclerosis: Clinical features and outcome. Neurology, 87(9 Suppl 2), S74–S81. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003028
  • Wallach, A. I., Waltz, M., Casper, T. C., Aaen, G., Belman, A., Benson, L., Chitnis, T., Gorman, M., Graves, J., Harris, Y., Lotze, T. E., Mar, S., Moodley, M., Ness, J. M., Rensel, M., Rodriguez, M., Rose, J. W., Schreiner, T., Tillema, J. M., … Krupp, L. B. (2020). Cognitive processing speed in pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis: Baseline characteristics of impairment and prediction of decline. Multiple Sclerosis, 26(14), 1938–1947. https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458519891984
  • Warkentin, S., Carnell, S., & Oliveira, A. (2020). Leptin at birth and at age 7 in relation to appetitive behaviors at age 7 and age 10. Hormones and Behavior, 126, 104842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104842
  • Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI). Psychological Corporation.
  • Wechsler, D. (2014). WISC-V: Technical and interpretive manual. Pearson.
  • Weier, K., Fonov, V., Aubert-Broche, B., Arnold, D. L., Banwell, B., & Collins, D. L. (2016). Impaired growth of the cerebellum in pediatric-onset acquired CNS demyelinating disease. Multiple Sclerosis, 22(10), 1266–1278. https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458515615224
  • Wuerfel, E., Weddige, A., Hagmayer, Y., Jacob, R., Wedekind, L., Stark, W., & Gärtner, J. (2018). Cognitive deficits including executive functioning in relation to clinical parameters in paediatric MS patients. PLoS One, 13(3), e0194873. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0194873
  • Yamamoto, E., Ginsberg, M., Rensel, M., & Moodley, M. (2018). Pediatric-onset multiple sclerosis: A single center study. Journal of Child Neurology, 33(1), 98–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073817739789
  • Yan, K., Balijepalli, C., Desai, K., Gullapalli, L., & Druyts, E. (2020). Epidemiology of pediatric multiple sclerosis: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders, 44, 102260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msard.2020.102260
  • Yirmiya, R., & Goshen, I. (2011). Immune modulation of learning, memory, neural plasticity and neurogenesis. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 25(2), 181–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2010.10.015

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.