0
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Executive functions and their relationship with age: Insights from a novel neuropsychological Assessment Battery in Children—a pilot study

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon show all

References

  • Ahmed, Y., Barnes, M. A., Cirino, P. T., Miciak, J., Taylor, W. P., & Gerst, E. H. (2018). Executive function: association with multiple reading skills. Reading and Writing, 32(7), 1819–1846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9923-9
  • Akhutina, T. V. (2002). LS Vigotsky y AR Luria: la formación de la neuropsicología. Revista española de Neuropsicología, 4(2), 108–129.
  • Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology: A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence, 8(2), 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.8.2.71.8724
  • Arango-Lasprilla, J. C., Rivera, D., Nicholls, E., Aguayo Arelis, A., García de la Cadena, C., Peñalver Guia, A. I., Vergara-Moragues, E., Rodriguez-Lorenzana, A., Marín-Morales, A., Soto-Añari, M., Lara, L., Rodríguez-Agudelo, Y., Alcazar Tebar, C., Galarza-Del-Angel, J., Rodriguez-Irizarry, W., Ibañéz-Alfonso, J. A., García-Guerrero, C. E., Delgado-Mejía, I. D., Pohlenz Amador, S., & Sánchez-SanSegundo, M. (2017). Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (M-WCST): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population. NeuroRehabilitation, 41(3), 617–626. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-172242
  • Arango-Lasprilla, J. C., Rivera, D., Ramos-Usuga, D., Vergara-Moragues, E., Montero-López, E., Adana Díaz, L. A., Aguayo Arelis, A., García-Guerrero, C. E., García de la Cadena, C., Llerena Espezúa, X., Lara, L., Padilla-López, A., Rodriguez-Irizarry, W., Alcazar Tebar, C., Irías Escher, M. J., Llibre Guerra, J. J., Torales Cabrera, N., Rodríguez-Agudelo, Y., & Ferrer-Cascales, R. (2017). Trail Making Test: Normative data for the Latin American Spanish-speaking pediatric population. NeuroRehabilitation, 41(3), 627–637. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-172247
  • Arango-Lasprilla, J. C., Rivera, D., Trapp, S., Jiménez-Pérez, C., Hernández Carrillo, C. L., Pohlenz Amador, S., Vergara-Moragues, E., Rodríguez-Agudelo, Y., Rodriguez-Irizarry, W., García de la Cadena, C., Galvao-Carmona, A., Galarza-Del-Angel, J., Llerena Espezúa, X., Torales Cabrera, N., Flor-Caravia, P., Aguayo Arelis, A., Saracostti Schwartzman, M., Barranco Casimiro, R., & Albaladejo-Blázquez, N. (2017). Symbol Digit Modalities Test: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population. NeuroRehabilitation, 41(3), 639–647. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-172243
  • Arango-Lasprilla, J. C., Rivera, D., Ertl, M. M., Muñoz Mancilla, J. M., García-Guerrero, C. E., Rodriguez-Irizarry, W., Aguayo Arelis, A., Rodríguez-Agudelo, Y., Barrios Nevado, M. D., Vélez-Coto, M., Yacelga Ponce, T. P., Rigabert, A., García de la Cadena, C., Pohlenz Amador, S., Vergara-Moragues, E., Soto-Añari, M., Peñalver Guia, A. I., Saracostti Schwartzman, M., & Ferrer-Cascales, R. (2017). Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure - copy and immediate recall (3 minutes): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. NeuroRehabilitation, 41(3), 593–603. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-172241
  • Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., Matute, E., & Guajardo, S. (2005). The influence of the parents’ educational level on the development of executive functions. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28(1), 539–560. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2801_5
  • Bailey, C. E. (2007). Cognitive accuracy and intelligent executive function in the brain and in business. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1118(1), 122–141. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1412.011
  • Baler, R. D., & Volkow, N. D. (2006). Drug addiction: the neurobiology of disrupted self-control. Trends in Molecular Medicine, 12(12), 559–566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2006.10.005
  • Ballhausen, N., Mahy, C. E., Hering, A., Voigt, B., Schnitzspahn, K. M., Lagner, P., Ihle, A., & Kliegel, M. (2017). Children’s planning performance in the Zoo Map task (BADS-C): Is it driven by general cognitive ability, executive functioning, or prospection? Applied Neuropsychology. Child, 6(2), 138–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2015.1124276
  • Barkley, R. A. (2001). The executive functions and self-regulation: an evolutionary neuropsychological perspective. Neuropsychology Review, 11(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1009085417776
  • Barkley, R. A. (2004). Adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: An overview of empirically based treatments. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 10(1), 39–56. https://doi.org/10.1097/00131746-200401000-00005
  • Bechara, A., Damasio, A. R., Damasio, H. Y., & Anderson, S. W. (1994). Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition, 50(1–3), 7–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(94)90018-3
  • Bedard, A. C., Nichols, S., Barbosa, J. A., Schachar, R., Logan, G. D., & Tannock, R. (2002). The development of selective inhibitory control across the life span. Developmental Neuropsychology, 21(1), 93–111. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326942DN2101_5
  • Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995). Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B: Statistical Methodology, 57(1), 289–300. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2346101 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x
  • Benson, D. F. (1993). Prefrontal abilities. Behavioural Neurology, 6(2), 75–81. https://doi.org/10.3233/BEN-1993-6202
  • Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(4), 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007
  • Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81(6), 1641–1660. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x
  • Bierman, K. L., Nix, R. L., Greenberg, M. T., Blair, C., & Domitrovich, C. E. (2008). Executive functions and school readiness intervention: Impact, moderation, and mediation in the Head Start REDI program. Development and Psychopathology, 20(3), 821–843. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579408000394
  • Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2015). School readiness and self-regulation: A developmental psychobiological approach. Annual Review of Psychology, 66(1), 711–731. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015221
  • Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78(2), 647–663. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x
  • Bora, E., Harrison, B. J., Yücel, M., & Pantelis, C. (2013). Cognitive impairment in euthymic major depressive disorder: A meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 43(10), 2017–2026. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291712002085
  • Brickenkamp, R. (2012). Test d2: Test de atención. Hogrefe. 15–17.
  • Brock, L. L., Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Nathanson, L., & Grimm, K. J. (2009). The contributions of “hot” and “cool” executive function to children’s academic achievement, learning-related behaviors, and engagement in kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 24(3), 337–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2009.06.001
  • Broidy, L. M., Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E., Bates, J. E., Brame, B., Dodge, K. A., Fergusson, D., Horwood, J. L., Loeber, R., Laird, R., Lynam, D. R., Moffitt, T. E., Pettit, G. S., & Vitaro, F. (2003). Developmental trajectories of childhood disruptive behaviors and adolescent delinquency: A six-site, cross-national study. Developmental Psychology, 39(2), 222–245. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.39.2.222
  • Buelow, M. T., & Suhr, J. A. (2009). Construct validity of the Iowa Gambling Task. Neuropsychology Review, 19(1), 102–114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-009-9083-4
  • Burgess, P. W., Dumontheil, I., & Gilbert, S. J. (2007). The gateway hypothesis of rostral prefrontal cortex (area 10) function. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(7), 290–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2007.05.004
  • Burgess, P. W. (2000). Strategy application disorder: The role of the frontal lobes in human multitasking. Psychological Research, 63(3–4), 279–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004269900006
  • Burgess, P. W., Veitch, E., de Lacy Costello, A., & Shallice, T. (2000). The cognitive and neuroanatomical correlates of multitasking. Neuropsychologia, 38(6), 848–863. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0028-3932(99)00134-7
  • Calderón, C., Beyle, C., Véliz-García, O., & Bekios-Calfa, J. (2021). Psychometric properties of Addenbrooke’s Cognitive Examination III (ACE-III): An item response theory approach. PloS One, 16(5), e0251137. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251137
  • Campanholo, K. R., Boa, I. N. F., Hodroj, F. C. D. S. A., Guerra, G. R. B., Miotto, E. C., & de Lucia, M. C. S. (2017). Impact of sociodemographic variables on executive functions. Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 11(1), 62–68. https://doi.org/10.1590/1980-57642016dn11-010010
  • Cattell, J. M. (1948). The time it takes to see and name objects, 1886. In W. Dennis (Ed.), Readings in the history of psychology (pp. 326–328). Appleton-Century-Crofts. https://doi.org/10.1037/11304-037
  • Collins, A., & Koechlin, E. (2012). Reasoning, learning, and creativity: Frontal lobe function and human decision-making. PLoS Biology, 10(3), e1001293. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001293
  • Cortés Pascual, A., Moyano Muñoz, N., & Quílez Robres, A. (2019). The relationship between executive functions and academic performance in primary education: Review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1582. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01582
  • Crescioni, A., Ehrlinger, J., Alquist, J. L., Conlon, K. E., Baumeister, R. F., Schatschneider, C., & Dutton, G. R. (2011). High trait self-control predicts positive health behaviors and success in weight loss. Journal of Health Psychology, 16(5), 750–759. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105310390247
  • Crone, E. A., Bunge, S. A., van der Molen, M. W., & Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2006). Switching between tasks and responses: A developmental study. Developmental Science, 9(3), 278–287. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2006.00490.x
  • Davidson, M. C., Amso, D., Anderson, L. C., & Diamond, A. (2006). Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. Neuropsychologia, 44(11), 2037–2078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006
  • de la Fuente, J., Martínez-Vicente, J. M., Pachón-Basallo, M., Peralta-Sánchez, F. J., Vera-Martínez, M. M., & Andrés-Romero, M. P. (2022). Differential predictive effect of self-regulation behavior and the combination of self- vs. external regulation behavior on executive dysfunctions and emotion regulation difficulties, in university students. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 876292. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.876292
  • Dempster, F. N. (1992). The rise and fall of the inhibitory mechanism: Toward a unified theory of cognitive development and aging. Developmental Review, 12(1), 45–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(92)90003-K
  • Denson, T. F., Capper, M. M., Oaten, M., Friese, M., & Schofield, T. P. (2011). Self-control training decreases aggression in response to provocation in aggressive individuals. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(2), 252–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.001
  • Diamond, A. (2002). Normal development of prefrontal cortex from birth to young adulthood: Cognitive functions, anatomy, and biochemistry. In D. T. Stuss & R. T. Knight (Eds.), Principles of frontal lobe function (pp. 466–503). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195134971.003.0029
  • Diamond, A. (2006). The early development of executive functions. In E. Bialystok & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Lifespan cognition: Mechanisms of change (pp. 70–95). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195169539.003.0006
  • Diamond, A., Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S. (2007). Preschool program improves cognitive control. Science (New York, N.Y.), 318(5855), 1387–1388. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1151148
  • Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
  • Diamond, A. (2020). Executive functions. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 173, 225–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-64150-2.00020-4
  • Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science (New York, N.Y.), 333(6045), 959–964. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
  • Diamond, A., Lee, C., Senften, P., Lam, A., & Abbott, D. (2019). Randomized control trial of Tools of the Mind: Marked benefits to kindergarten children and their teachers. PloS One, 14(9), e0222447. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222447
  • Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2016). Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 34–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005
  • Diamond, A., & Taylor, C. (1996). Development of an aspect of executive control: Development of the abilities to remember what I said and to “do as I say, not as I do. Developmental Psychobiology, 29(4), 315–334. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(199605)29:4<315::AID-DEV2>3.0.CO;2-T
  • Domic-Siede, M., Sánchez-Corzo, A., & Guzmán-González, M. (2024). Brain oscillations during emotion regulation and the two-dimensional model of adult attachment. Biological Psychology, 189, 108793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2024.108793
  • Domic-Siede, M., Irani, M., Ramos-Henderson, M., Calderón, C., Ossandón, T., & Perrone-Bertolotti, M. (2022). La planificación cognitiva en el contexto de la evaluación neuropsicológica e investigación en neurociencia cognitiva: una revisión sistemática. Terapia psicológica, 40(3), 367–395. https://doi.org/10.4067/s0718-48082022000300367
  • Domic-Siede, M., Irani, M., Valdés, J., Perrone-Bertolotti, M., & Ossandón, T. (2021). Theta activity from frontopolar cortex, mid-cingulate cortex and anterior cingulate cortex shows different roles in cognitive planning performance. NeuroImage, 226, 117557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117557
  • Domic-Siede, M., Irani, M., Valdés, J., Rodríguez, M., Follet, B., Perrone-Bertolotti, M., & Ossandón, T. (2023). A visuospatial planning task coupled with eye-tracker and electroencephalogram systems. Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE, (193), e64622. https://doi.org/10.3791/64622
  • Dreher, J. C., Koechlin, E., Tierney, M., & Grafman, J. (2008). Damage to the fronto-polar cortex is associated with impaired multitasking. PloS One, 3(9), e3227. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003227
  • Eakin, L., Minde, K., Hechtman, L., Ochs, E., Krane, E., Bouffard, R., Greenfield, B., & Looper, K. (2004). The marital and family functioning of adults with ADHD and their spouses. Journal of Attention Disorders, 8(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/108705470400800101
  • Engel de Abreu, P. M., Abreu, N., Nikaedo, C. C., Puglisi, M. L., Tourinho, C. J., Miranda, M. C., Befi-Lopes, D. M., Bueno, O. F., & Martin, R. (2014). Executive functioning and reading achievement in school: A study of Brazilian children assessed by their teachers as “poor readers”. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 550. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00550
  • Evans, J. S., Over, D. E., & Manktelow, K. I. (1993). Reasoning, decision making and rationality. Cognition, 49(1-2), 165–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(93)90039-x
  • Faccioli, C., Peru, A., Rubini, E., & Tassinari, G. (2008). Poor readers but compelled to read: Stroop effects in developmental dyslexia. Child Neuropsychology: A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence, 14(3), 277–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297040701290040
  • Fairchild, G., Moore, S. C., Savage, J. C., Syngelaki, E. M., & Van Goozen, S. H. M. (2009). Executive functioning and risky decision making in young male offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36(11), 1213–1227. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854809343095
  • Fastame, M. C. (2022). Are subjective cognitive complaints associated with executive functions and mental health of older adults? Cognitive Processing, 23(3), 503–512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-022-01089-y
  • Fastenau, P. S. (1996). Development and preliminary standardization of the “extended complex figure test” (ECFT). Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 18(1), 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688639608408263
  • Fatima, S., Hassan, S., & Jameel, F. (2024). A moderated mediation model of age-related decline in selective executive functions and quality of life in men with substance use disorder. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 21(2), 143–152. https://doi.org/10.36131/cnfioritieditore20240203
  • Ferguson, H. J., Brunsdon, V. E. A., & Bradford, E. E. F. (2021). The developmental trajectories of executive function from adolescence to old age. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1382. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-80866-1
  • Fiske, A., & Holmboe, K. (2019). Neural substrates of early executive function development. Developmental Review: DR, 52, 42–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2019.100866
  • Flores-Lázaro, J., Ostrosky-Solís, F., & Lozano-Gutiérrez, A. (2014). BANFE. Manual de Batería Neuropsicológica de Funciones Ejecutivas y Lóbulos Frontales (pp 1–37). Ed. Manual Moderno.
  • Flores, J. C., Castillo-Preciado, R. E., & Jiménez-Miramonte, N. A. (2014). Desarrollo de funciones ejecutivas, de la niñez a la juventud. Anales de Psicología, 30(2), 463. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.30.2.155471
  • Fonseca, G. P., Rodríguez, L. C., & Parra, J. H. (2016). Relación entre funciones ejecutivas y rendimiento académico por asignaturas en escolares de 6 a 12 años. Hacia la Promoción de la Salud, 21(2), 41–58. https://doi.org/10.17151/hpsal.2016.21.2.4
  • Friedman, N. P., & Robbins, T. W. (2022). The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function. Neuropsychopharmacology: Official Publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology, 47(1), 72–89. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-021-01132-0
  • Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex; a Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior, 86, 186–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023
  • Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Ambridge, B., & Wearing, H. (2004). The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age. Developmental Psychology, 40(2), 177–190. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177
  • Gilbert, S. J., & Burgess, P. W. (2008). Executive function. Current Biology: CB, 18(3), R110–R114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.12.014
  • Gioia, G. A., Isquith, P. K., Guy, S. C. y., & Kenworthy, L. (2017). BRIEF-2 Evaluación conductual de la Función Ejecutiva (M. J. Maldonado, M. C. Fournier, R. Martínez-Arias, J. González-Marqués, J. M. Espejo-Saavedray, & P. Santamaría, adaptadores). TEA Ediciones.
  • Goble, P., Flynn, T., Nauman, C., Almendarez, P., & Linstrom, M. (2021). Intervention implementation of tools of the mind for preschool children’s executive functioning. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 624140. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624140
  • Golden, C. J. (2007). Stroop, Test de Colores y Palabras: Manual (5° Ed.). Tea Ediciones, S.A.
  • Golden, C. J. (1978). Stroop Color and Word Test: A manual for clinical and experimental uses. Stoelting.
  • Gordon, R., Smith-Spark, J. H., Newton, E. J., & Henry, L. A. (2018). Executive function and academic achievement in primary school children: The use of task-related processing speed. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 582. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00582
  • Gouveia, P. A., Brucki, S. M., Malheiros, S. M., & Bueno, O. F. (2007). Disorders in planning and strategy application in frontal lobe lesion patients. Brain and Cognition, 63(3), 240–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2006.09.001
  • Grant, D. A., & Berg, E. (1948). A behavioral analysis of degree of reinforcement and ease of shifting to new responses in a Weigl-type card-sorting problem. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38(4), 404–411. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0059831
  • Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94
  • Groth-Marnat, G. (2009). Handbook of psychological assessment (5th ed.). Wiley.
  • Hambleton, R. K. (1991). Fundamentals of item response theory. SAGE Publications.
  • Harrington, D. (2009). Confirmatory factor analysis.(Oxford University Press.
  • Hayes-Roth, B., & Hayes-Roth, F. (1979). A cognitive model of planning. Cognitive Science, 3(4), 275–310. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog0304_1
  • Hodel, A. S. (2018). Rapid infant prefrontal cortex development and sensitivity to early environmental experience. Developmental Review: DR, 48, 113–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.02.003
  • Holt, D. V., Wolf, J., Funke, J., Weisbrod, M., & Kaiser, S. (2013). Planning impairments in schizophrenia: Specificity, task independence and functional relevance. Schizophrenia Research, 149(1-3), 174–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2013.06.018
  • Hughes, C. (1998). Executive function in preschoolers: Links with theory of mind and verbal ability. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 16(2), 233–253. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1998.tb00921.x
  • Hughes, C. (2002). Executive functions and development: Why the interest? Infant and Child Development, 11(2), 69–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.296
  • Huizinga, M., Dolan, C. V., & van der Molen, M. W. (2006). Age-related change in executive function: Developmental trends and a latent variable analysis. Neuropsychologia, 44(11), 2017–2036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.01.010
  • Ibbotson, P. (2023). The development of executive function: Mechanisms of change and functional pressures. Journal of Cognition and Development, 24(2), 172–190. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248372.2022.2160719
  • Jolliffe, T., & Baron-Cohen, S. (1997). Are people with autism and Asperger syndrome faster than normal on the Embedded Figures Test? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 38(5), 527–534. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01539.x
  • Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 437–447. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.437
  • Juric, L. C., Richards, M. M., Introzzi, I., Andrés, M. L., & Urquijo, S. (2013). Development patterns of executive functions in children. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 16, E41. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2013.44
  • Karnath, H. O., Wallesch, C. W., & Zimmermann, P. (1991). Mental planning and anticipatory processes with acute and chronic frontal lobe lesions: A comparison of maze performance in routine and non-routine situations. Neuropsychologia, 29(4), 271–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-3932(91)90042-7
  • Karr, J. E., Areshenkoff, C. N., Rast, P., Hofer, S. M., Iverson, G. L., & Garcia-Barrera, M. A. (2018). The unity and diversity of executive functions: A systematic review and re-analysis of latent variable studies. Psychological Bulletin, 144(11), 1147–1185. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000160
  • Kleine Deters, R., Naaijen, J., Rosa, M., Aggensteiner, P. M., Banaschewski, T., Saam, M. C., Schulze, U. M. E., Sethi, A., Craig, M. C., Sagar-Ouriaghli, I., Santosh, P., Castro-Fornieles, J., Penzol, M. J., Arango, C., Werhahn, J. E., Brandeis, D., Franke, B., Glennon, J., Buitelaar, J. K., Hoekstra, P. J., … Dietrich, A. (2020). Executive functioning and emotion recognition in youth with oppositional defiant disorder and/or conduct disorder. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry: The Official Journal of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry, 21(7), 539–551. https://doi.org/10.1080/15622975.2020.1747114
  • Koechlin, E. (2011). Frontal pole function: What is specifically human? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(6), 241; author reply 243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.04.005
  • Koechlin, E. (2014). An evolutionary computational theory of prefrontal executive function in decision-making. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 369(1655), 20130474. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0474
  • Koechlin, E., Basso, G., Pietrini, P., Panzer, S., & Grafman, J. (1999). The role of the anterior prefrontal cortex in human cognition. Nature, 399(6732), 148–151. https://doi.org/10.1038/20178
  • Koene, J., Zyto, S., van der Stel, J., van Lang, N., Ammeraal, M., Kupka, R. W., & van Weeghel, J. (2022). The relations between executive functions and occupational functioning in individuals with bipolar disorder: A scoping review. International Journal of Bipolar Disorders, 10(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40345-022-00255-7
  • Kofler, M. J., Rapport, M. D., Sarver, D. E., Raiker, J. S., Orban, S. A., Friedman, L. M., & Kolomeyer, E. G. (2013). Reaction time variability in ADHD: A meta-analytic review of 319 studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(6), 795–811. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.06.001
  • Kortte, K. B., Horner, M. D., & Windham, W. K. (2002). The trail making test, part B: Cognitive flexibility or ability to maintain set?. Applied neuropsychology, 9(2), 106–109. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324826AN0902_5
  • Lace, J. W., Seitz, D. J., Austin, T. A., Kennedy, E. E., Ferguson, B. J., & Mohrland, M. D. (2022). The dimensionality of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Second Edition in a clinical sample. Applied Neuropsychology. Child, 11(4), 579–590. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2021.1910950
  • Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
  • Lezak, M., Howieson, D., & Loring, D. (2004). Neuropsychological assessment (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.
  • Lima-Silva, T. B., Bahia, V. S., Carvalho, V. A., Guimarães, H. C., Caramelli, P., Balthazar, M., Damasceno, B., Bottino, C. M. D C., Brucki, S. M. D., Nitrini, R., & Yassuda, M. S. (2013). Functional profile of patients with behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD) compared to patients with Alzheimer’s disease and normal controls. Dementia & Neuropsychologia, 7(1), 96–103. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1980-57642013DN70100015
  • Linden, W. J. V D., & Hambleton, R. K. (2013). Handbook of modern item response theory. Springer Science & Business Media.
  • Long, J. S. (1983). Confirmatory factor analysis: A preface to LISREL. SAGE Publications.
  • Lord, F. M. (1980). Applications of item response theory to practical testing problems. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203056615
  • Lui, M., & Tannock, R. (2007). Working memory and inattentive behaviour in a community sample of children. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 3(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-3-12
  • Lunt, L., Bramham, J., Morris, R. G., Bullock, P. R., Selway, R. P., Xenitidis, K., & David, A. S. (2012). Prefrontal cortex dysfunction and “Jumping to Conclusions”: Bias or deficit? Journal of Neuropsychology, 6(1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-6653.2011.02005.x
  • Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain: An introduction to neuropsychology. Basic books.
  • Luria, A. R. (1984). Conciencia y lenguaje. Ed Visor.
  • MacLeod, C. M. (1991). Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 109(2), 163–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.163
  • Mamrot, P., & Hanć, T. (2019). The association of the executive functions with overweight and obesity indicators in children and adolescents: A literature review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 107, 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.021
  • Mansouri, F. A., Egner, T., & Buckley, M. J. (2017). Monitoring demands for executive control: Shared functions between human and nonhuman primates. Trends in Neurosciences, 40(1), 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2016.11.001
  • Meijers, J., Harte, J. M., Jonker, F. A., & Meynen, G. (2015). Prison brain? Executive dysfunction in prisoners. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 43. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00043
  • Miller, H. V., Barnes, J. C., & Beaver, K. M. (2011). Self-control and health outcomes in a nationally representative sample. American Journal of Health Behavior, 35(1), 15–27. https://doi.org/10.5993/ajhb.35.1.2
  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
  • Moran, L., & Yeates, K. O. (2011). Stroop color and word test, children’s version. In J. S. Kreutzer, J. DeLuca, & B. Caplan (Eds.), Encyclopedia of clinical neuropsychology. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79948-3_1597
  • Morris, R. G., & Ward, G. (2005). Introduction to the psychology of planning. In R. Morris & G. Ward (Eds.), The cognitive psychology of planning (pp. 199–227). Psychology Press.
  • Munakata, Y., Casey, B. J., & Diamond, A. (2004). Developmental cognitive neuroscience: progress and potential. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(3), 122–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.01.005
  • Nelson, H. E. (1976). A modified card sorting test sensitive to frontal lobe defects. Cortex; a Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior, 12(4), 313–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-9452(76)80035-4
  • Obradović, J., & Willoughby, M. T. (2019). Studying executive function skills in young children in low- and middle-income countries: Progress and directions. Child Development Perspectives, 13(4), 227–234. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12349
  • Olabarrieta-Landa, L., Rivera, D., Lara, L., Rute-Pérez, S., Rodríguez-Lorenzana, A., Galarza-Del-Angel, J., Peñalver Guia, A. I., Ferrer-Cascales, R., Velázquez-Cardoso, J., Campos Varillas, A. I., Ramos-Usuga, D., Chino-Vilca, B., Aguilar Uriarte, M. A., Martín-Lobo, P., García de la Cadena, C., Postigo-Alonso, B., Romero-García, I., Rabago Barajas, B. V., Irías Escher, M. J., & Arango-Lasprilla, J. C. (2017). Verbal fluency tests: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population. NeuroRehabilitation, 41(3), 673–686. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-172240
  • Olabarrieta-Landa, L., Torre, E. L., López-Mugartza, J. C., Bialystok, E., & Arango-Lasprilla, J. C. (2017). Verbal fluency tests: Developing a new model of administration and scoring for Spanish language. NeuroRehabilitation, 41(2), 539–565. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-162102
  • Oosterman, J. M., Wijers, M., & Kessels, R. P. (2013). Planning or something else? Examining neuropsychological predictors of Zoo Map performance. Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 20(2), 103–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/09084282.2012.670150
  • Palomo, R., Casals-Coll, M., Sánchez-Benavides, G., Quintana, M., Manero, R. M., Rognoni, T., Calvo, L., Aranciva, F., Tamayo, F., & Peña-Casanova, J. (2013). Spanish normative studies in young adults (NEURONORMA young adults project): Norms for the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (copy and memory) and Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test. Neurologia (Barcelona, Spain), 28(4), 226–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nrl.2012.03.008
  • Pérez-Pérez, A., Matias-Guiu, J. A., Cáceres-Guillén, I., Rognoni, T., Valles-Salgado, M., Fernández-Matarrubia, M., Moreno-Ramos, T., & Matías-Guiu, J. (2016). The Hayling Test: Development and normalization of the Spanish version. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 31(5), 411–419. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acw027
  • Pureza, J. R., Gonçalves, H. A., Branco, L., Grassi-Oliveira, R., & Fonseca, R. P. (2013). Executive functions in late childhood: Age differences among groups. Psychology & Neuroscience, 6(1), 79–88. https://doi.org/10.3922/j.psns.2013.1.12
  • Reynolds, C. R. (1997). Forward and backward memory span should not be combined for clinical analysis. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 12(1), 29–40.
  • Reitan, R. M. (1992). Trail Making Test: Manual for administration and scoring. Reitan Neuropsychology Laboratory.
  • Riggs, N., Chou, C. P., Spruijt-Metz, D., & Pentz, M. A. (2010). Executive cognitive function as a correlate and predictor of child food intake and physical activity. Child Neuropsychology: A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence, 16(3), 279–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297041003601488
  • Rive, M. M., Koeter, M. W. J., Veltman, D. J., Schene, A. H., & Ruhé, H. G. (2016). Visuospatial planning in unmedicated major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder: Distinct and common neural correlates. Psychological Medicine, 46(11), 2313–2328. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716000933
  • Rivera, D., & Arango-Lasprilla, J. C. (2017). Methodology for the development of normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric populations. NeuroRehabilitation, 41(3), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.3233/nre-172275
  • Rivera, D., Salinas, C., Ramos-Usuga, D., Delgado-Mejía, I. D., Vasallo Key, Y., Hernández Agurcia, G. P., Valencia Vásquez, J., García-Guerrero, C. E., García de la Cadena, C., Rabago Barajas, B. V., Romero-García, I., Campos Varillas, A. I., Sánchez-SanSegundo, M., Galvao-Carmona, A., Lara, L., Granja Gilbert, E. J., Martín-Lobo, P., Velázquez-Cardoso, J., Caracuel, A., & Arango-Lasprilla, J. C. (2017). Concentration Endurance Test (d2): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population. NeuroRehabilitation, 41(3), 661–671. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-172248
  • Rivera, D., Morlett-Paredes, A., Peñalver Guia, A. I., Irías Escher, M. J., Soto-Añari, M., Aguayo Arelis, A., Rute-Pérez, S., Rodríguez-Lorenzana, A., Rodríguez-Agudelo, Y., Albaladejo-Blázquez, N., García de la Cadena, C., Ibáñez-Alfonso, J. A., Rodriguez-Irizarry, W., García-Guerrero, C. E., Delgado-Mejía, I. D., Padilla-López, A., Vergara-Moragues, E., Barrios Nevado, M. D., Saracostti Schwartzman, M., & Arango-Lasprilla, J. C. (2017). Stroop Color-Word Interference Test: Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population. NeuroRehabilitation, 41(3), 605–616. https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-172246
  • Rosas, R., Espinoza, V., Martínez, C., & Santa-Cruz, C. (2022). Playful testing of executive functions with yellow-red: Tablet-based battery for children between 6 and 11. Journal of Intelligence, 10(4), 125. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence10040125
  • Rosas, R., Tenorio, M., Pizarro, M., Cumsille, P., Bosch, A., Arancibia, S., Carmona, M., Pérez-Salas, C. P., Pino, E., Vizcarra, B., & Zapata-Sepúlveda, P. (2014). Estandarización de la Escala Wechsler de Inteligencia Para Adultos-Cuarta Edición en Chile. Psykhe, 23(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.7764/psykhe.23.1.529
  • Rosselli, M., Matute Villaseñor, E., Ardila, A., Botero Gómez, V. E., Tangarife Salazar, G. A., Echevarría Pulido, S. E., Arbelaez Giraldo, C., Mejía Quintero, M., Méndez Losado, L. C., Villa Hurtado, P. C., & Ocampo Agudelo, P. (2004). Evaluación Neuropsicológica Infantil (ENI): batería para la evaluación de niños entre 5 y 16 años de edad. Estudio normativo colombiano [Neuropsychological Assessment of Children: a test battery for children between 5 and 16 years of age. A Colombian normative study]. Revista de Neurología, 38(08), 720–731. https://doi.org/10.33588/rn.3808.2003400
  • Sánchez-Cubillo, I., Periáñez, J. A., Adrover-Roig, D., Rodríguez-Sánchez, J. M., Ríos-Lago, M., Tirapu, J., & Barceló, F. (2009). Construct validity of the Trail Making Test: role of task-switching, working memory, inhibition/interference control, and visuomotor abilities. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 15(3), 438–450. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617709090626
  • Santa-Cruz, C., & Rosas, R. (2017). Mapping of executive functions/Cartografía de las Funciones Ejecutivas. Studies in Psychology, 38(2), 284–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/02109395.2017.1311459
  • Sattler, J. M., & Ryan, J. J. (2009). Assessment with the WAIS-IV. Author.
  • Schaeffer, M. J., Weerawardhena, H., Becker, S., & Callahan, B. L. (2022). Capturing daily-life executive impairments in adults: Does the choice of neuropsychological tests matter? Applied Neuropsychology. Adult, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/23279095.2022.2109970
  • Schretlen, D. (2010). Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: M-WCST. Professional Manual. PAR.
  • Scerif, G., Blakey, E., Gattas, S., Hawes, Z., Howard, S., Merkley, R., O’Connor, R., & Simms, V. (2023). Making the executive ‘function’ for the foundations of mathematics: The need for explicit theories of change for early interventions. Educational Psychology Review, 35(4), 110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09824-3
  • Shallice, T. (1982). Specific impairments of planning. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 298(1089), 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1982.0082
  • Shin, M. S., Park, S. Y., Park, S. R., Seol, S. H., & Kwon, J. S. (2006). Clinical and empirical applications of the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test. Nature Protocols, 1(2), 892–899. https://doi.org/10.1038/nprot.2006.115
  • Smith, A. (2013). Symbol digit modalities test: Manual. Western Psychological Services.
  • Smith, A. (2002). Manual de test de símbolos y dígitos SDMT. Publicaciones de psicología aplicada. TEA ediciones. 7–8.
  • Souissi, S., Chamari, K., & Bellaj, T. (2022). Assessment of executive functions in school-aged children: A narrative review. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 991699. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.991699
  • Spiegel, J. A., Lonigan, C. J., & Phillips, B. M. (2022). “Factor structure and utility of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version”: Correction. Psychological Assessment, 34(11), 1007–1007. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0001191
  • Strauss, E., Sherman, E. M. S., & Spreen, O. (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: Administration, norms, and commentary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
  • Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054651
  • Taylor Tavares, J. V., Clark, L., Cannon, D. M., Erickson, K., Drevets, W. C., & Sahakian, B. J. (2007). Distinct profiles of neurocognitive function in unmedicated unipolar depression and bipolar II depression. Biological Psychiatry, 62(8), 917–924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.034
  • Tombaugh, T. N. (2004). Trail Making Test A and B: Normative data stratified by age and education. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists, 19(2), 203–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(03)00039-8
  • Toplak, M. E., Sorge, G. B., Benoit, A., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2010). Decision-making and cognitive abilities: A review of associations between Iowa Gambling Task performance, executive functions, and intelligence. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(5), 562–581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.002
  • Tsujimoto, S. (2008). The prefrontal cortex: Functional neural development during early childhood. The Neuroscientist: A Review Journal Bringing Neurobiology, Neurology and Psychiatry, 14(4), 345–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858408316002
  • Tsujimoto, S., Yamamoto, T., Kawaguchi, H., Koizumi, H., & Sawaguchi, T. (2004). Prefrontal cortical activation associated with working memory in adults and preschool children: An event-related optical topography study. Cerebral Cortex (New York, N.Y.: 1991),), 14(7), 703–712. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhh030
  • Urzúa, A., Domic, M., Ramos, M., Cerda, A., & Quiroz, J. (2010). Propiedades psicométricas de tres escalas de evaluación del trastorno por déficit de atención con hiperactividad en escolares chilenos. Revista panamericana de salud publica = Pan American journal of public health, 27(3), 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1020-49892010000300002
  • Urzúa, A., Domic, M., Cerda, A., Ramos, M., & Quiroz, J. (2009). Trastorno por Déficit de Atención con Hiperactividad en Niños Escolarizados Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in School Age Children in Antofagasta. Revista Chilena de Pediatría-Julio-Agosto, 80(4), 332-338. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0370-41062009000400004
  • Verdejo-García, A., Bechara, A., Recknor, E. C., & Pérez-García, M. (2006). Executive dysfunction in substance dependent individuals during drug use and abstinence: An examination of the behavioral, cognitive and emotional correlates of addiction. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 12(3), 405–415. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355617706060486
  • Vygotsky, L. S. (1981). The genesis of higher mental functions. In J. V. Wertsch (Ed.), The concept of activity in Soviet psychology (pp. 144–188). M.E. Sharpe.
  • Wassenberg, R., Hendriksen, J. G., Hurks, P. P., Feron, F. J., Keulers, E. H., Vles, J. S., & Jolles, J. (2008). Development of inattention, impulsivity, and processing speed as measured by the d2 Test: results of a large cross-sectional study in children aged 7-13. Child Neuropsychology: A Journal on Normal and Abnormal Development in Childhood and Adolescence, 14(3), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297040601187940
  • Watanabe, K., Ogino, T., Nakano, K., Hattori, J., Kado, Y., Sanada, S., & Ohtsuka, Y. (2005). The Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure as a measure of executive function in childhood. Brain & Development, 27(8), 564–569. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2005.02.007
  • Wierenga, L. M., Bos, M. G. N., van Rossenberg, F., & Crone, E. A. (2019). Sex effects on development of brain structure and executive functions: Greater variance than mean effects. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 31(5), 730–753. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_01375
  • Williams, B. R., Ponesse, J. S., Schachar, R. J., Logan, G. D., & Tannock, R. (1999). Development of inhibitory control across the life span. Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 205–213. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.35.1.205
  • Wilson, B. A., Alderman, N., Burgess, P. W., Emslie, H., & Evans, J. J. (1996). Behavioural assessment of the dysexecutive syndrome. Thames Valley Test Company.
  • Zanon, C., Hutz, C. S., Yoo, H., & Hambleton, R. K. (2016). An application of item response theory to psychological test development. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 29(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-016-0040-x
  • Zelazo, P. D., Carlson, S. M., & Kesek, A. (2008). The development of executive function in childhood. In C. A. Nelson & M. Luciana (Eds.), Handbook of developmental cognitive neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 553–574). Boston Review.
  • Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2002). Executive function in typical and atypical development. In U. Goswami (Ed.), Handbook of childhood cognitive development (pp. 445–469). Blackwell Publishers.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.