“Postconcussive” Symptoms Explained by PTSD Symptom Severity in U.S. National Guard Personnel

References

• American Psychiatric Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed.
   Google Scholar
• Andruszkow, H., Deniz, E., Urner, J., Probst, C., Grün, O., Lohse, R., Frink, M., Krettek, C., Zeckey, C., & Hildebrand, F. (2014). Physical and psychological long-term outcome after traumatic brain injury in children and adult patients. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 12, 26–28. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-12-26
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bastien, C. H., Vallières, A., & Morin, C. M. (2001). Validation of the Insomnia Severity Index as an outcome measure for insomnia research. Sleep Medicine, 2(4), 297–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1389-9457(00)00065-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belanger, H. G., Spiegel, E., & Vanderploeg, R. D. (2010). Neuropsychological performance following a history of multiple self-reported concussions: A meta-analysis. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 16(2), 262–267. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617709991287
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM‐5 (PCL‐5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borg, J., Holm, L., Peloso, P. M., Cassidy, J. D., Carroll, L., von Holst, H., Paniak, C., Yates, D. (2004). Non-surgical intervention and cost for mild traumatic brain injury: Results of the WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 36, 76–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/16501960410023840
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brenner, L. A., Homaifar, B. Y., Olson-Madden, J. H., Nagamoto, H. T., Huggins, J., Schneider, A. L., Forster, J. E., Matarazzo, B., & Corrigan, J. D. (2013). Prevalence and screening of traumatic brain injury among veterans seeking mental health services. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 28(1), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0b013e31827df0b5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carey, M., Jones, K. A., Yoong, S. L., D'este, C., Boyes, A. W., Paul, C., Inder, K. J., & Sanson-Fisher, R. (2014). Comparison of a single self-assessment item with the PHQ-9 for detecting depression in general practice. Family Practice, 31(4), 483–489. https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/cmu018
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carlson, K. F., Nelson, D., Orazem, R. J., Nugent, S., Cifu, D. X., & Sayer, N. A. (2010). Psychiatric diagnoses among Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans screened for deployment-related traumatic brain injury. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23(1), 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20483
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. (2013). Report to Congress on traumatic brain injury in the United States: Understanding the public health problem among current and former military personnel. https://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/pdf/Report_to_Congress_on_Traumatic_Brain_Injury_2013-a.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, J. (1968). Multiple regression as a general data-analytic system. Psychological Bulletin, 70(6, Pt.1), 426–443. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0026714
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, S., & Hoberman, H. M. (1983). Positive events and social supports as buffers of life change stress. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 13(2), 99–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1983.tb02325.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Defense & Veterans Brain Injury Center. (2019). DoD Worldwide Numbers for TBI. https://dvbic.dcoe.mil/dod-worldwide-numbers-tbi
   Google Scholar
• Dikmen, S. S., Machamer, J. E., Powell, J. M., & Temkin, N. R. (2003). Outcome 3 to 5 years after moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 84(10), 1449–1457. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-9993(03)00287-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eibner, C., Ringel, J. S., Kilmer, B., Pacula, R. L., & Diaz, C. (2008). The costs of post-deployment mental health and cognitive conditions. In T. Tanielian, & L. H. Jaycox (Eds.), Invisible Wounds of War: Psychological and Cognitive Injuries, Their Consequences, and Services to Assist Recovery (pp 169–241). RAND Corporation. http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2008/RAND_MG720.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Eme, R. (2017). Neurobehavioral outcomes of mild traumatic brain injury: A mini review. Brain Sciences, 7(12), 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci7050046
   Google Scholar
• Fehily, B., & Fitzgerald, M. (2017). Repeated mild traumatic brain injury: Potential mechanisms of damage. Cell Transplantation, 26(7), 1131–1155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963689717714092
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fulton, J. J., Calhoun, P. S., Wagner, H. R., Schry, A. R., Hair, L. P., Feeling, N., Elbogen, E., & Beckham, J. C. (2015). The prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder in Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) veterans: A meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 31, 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.02.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Funk, J. L., & Rogge, R. D. (2007). Testing the ruler with item response theory: Increasing precision of measurement for relationship satisfaction with the Couples Satisfaction Index. Journal of Family Psychology: JFP, 21(4), 572–583. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.21.4.572
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Germain, A., Buysse, D. J., & Nofzinger, E. (2008). Sleep-specific mechanisms underlying posttraumatic stress disorder: Integrative review and neurobiological hypotheses. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 12(3), 185–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2007.09.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene-Shortridge, T. M., Britt, T. W., & Andrew, C. (2007). The stigma of mental health problems in the military. Military Medicine, 172(2), 157–161. https://doi.org/10.7205/milmed.172.2.157
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haagsma, J. A., Scholten, A. C., Andriessen, T. M. J. C., Vos, P. E., Van Beeck, E. F., & Polinder, S. (2015). Impact of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder on functional outcome and health-related quality of life of patients with mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 32(11), 853–862. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2013.3283
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoge, C. W., McGurk, D., Thomas, J., Cox, A. L., Engel, C. C., & Castro, C. A. (2008). Mild traumatic brain injury in US soldiers returning from Iraq. The New England Journal of Medicine, 358(5), 453–463. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa072972
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holster, J. L., Bryan, C. J., Heron, E. A., & Seegmiller, R. A. (2017). Traumatic brain injury, sleep, and mental health: A longitudinal study of Air Force personnel pre- and post-deployment to Iraq. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 32(1), 25–33. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0000000000000237
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IBM. (2013). IBM SPSS statistics for windows version 22. IBM Corp.
   Google Scholar
• Karr, J. E., Areshenkoff, C. N., & Garcia-Barrera, M. A. (2014). The neuropsychological outcomes of concussion: A systematic review of meta-analyses on the cognitive sequelae of mild traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology, 28(3), 321–336. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 606–613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larson, E. B., Kondiles, B. R., Starr, C. R., & Zollman, F. S. (2013). Postconcussive complaints, cognition, symptom attribution and effort among veterans. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 19(1), 88–95. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617712000999
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin, H. S., & Robertson, C. S. (2013). Mild traumatic brain injury in translation. Journal of Neurotrauma, 30(8), 610–617. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2012.2394
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marshall, S., Bayley, M., McCullagh, S., Velikonja, D., Berrigan, L., Ouchterlony, D., & Weegar, K, & mTBI Expert Consensus Group. (2015). Updated clinical practice guidelines for concussion/mild traumatic brain injury and persistent symptoms. Brain Injury, 29(6), 688–700. https://doi.org/10.3109/02699052.2015.1004755
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMahon, P., Hricik, A., Yue, J. K., Puccio, A. M., Inoue, T., Lingsma, H. F., Beers, S. R., Gordon, W. A., Valadka, A. B., Manley, G. T., Okonkwo, D. O., & TRACK-TBI Investigators. (2014). Symptomatology and functional outcome in mild traumatic brain injury: Results from the prospective TRACK-TBI study. Journal of Neurotrauma, 31(1), 26–33. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2013.2984
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, A. J., & Coyne, J. C. (2007). Do ultra-short screening instruments accurately detect depression in primary care? A pooled analysis and meta-analysis of 22 studies. British Journal of General Practice, 57, 144–151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morin, C. M. (1993). Insomnia: Psychological assessment and management. Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Morin, C. M., Belleville, G., Bélanger, L., & Ivers, H. (2011). The Insomnia Severity Index: Psychometric indicators to detect insomnia cases and evaluate treatment response. Sleep, 34(5), 601–608. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/34.5.601
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nemeroff, C. B., Bremner, J. D., Foa, E. B., Mayberg, H. S., North, C. S., & Stein, M. B. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder: A state-of-the-science review. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.07.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Neil, M. E., Carlson, K., Storzbach, D., Brenner, L., Freeman, M., Qui-Ñones, A., Motu’apuaka, M., Ensley, M., & Kansagara, D. (2013). Complications of mild traumatic brain injury in veterans and military personnel: A systematic review. Evidence‐based Synthesis Program.
   Google Scholar
• Ozer, E. J., Best, S. R., Lipsey, T. L., & Weiss, D. S. (2008). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, S(1), 3–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/1942-9681.S.1.3
   Google Scholar
• Plumb, T. R., Peachey, J. T., & Zelman, D. C. (2014). Sleep disturbance is common among servicemembers and veterans of Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom. Psychological Services, 11(2), 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034958
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prince, C., & Bruhns, M. E. (2017). Evaluation and treatment of mild traumatic brain injury: The role of neuropsychology. Brain Sciences, 7(12), 105. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci7080105
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Riley, E., Mitko, A., Stumps, A., Robinson, M., Milberg, W., McGlinchey, R., Esterman, M., & DeGutis, J. (2019). Clinically significant cognitive dysfunction in OEF/OIF/OND veterans: Prevalence and clinical associations. Neuropsychology, 33(4), 534–546. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000529
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruet, A., Bayen, E., Jourdan, C., Ghout, I., Meaude, L., Lalanne, A., Pradat-Diehl, P., Nelson, G., Charanton, J., Aegerter, P., Vallat-Azouvi, C., & Azouvi, P. (2019). A detailed overview of long-term outcomes in severe traumatic brain injury eight years post injury. Frontiers in Neurology, 10, 120. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.00120
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seidl, J. N. T., Pastorek, N. J., Lillie, R., Rosenblatt, A., Troyanskaya, M., Miller, B. I., Romesser, J., Lippa, S., Sim, A. H., & Linck, J. (2015). Factors related to satisfaction with life in veterans with mild traumatic brain injury. Rehabilitation Psychology, 60(4), 335–343. https://doi.org/10.1037/rep0000064
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silverberg, N. D., Wojtowicz, M., Bui, E., Wershba, R., Zafonte, R., Laifer, L. M., Simon, N. M., & Iverson, G. L. (2017). Contribution of perceived cognitive functioning to quality of life in service members and veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 30(3), 318–322. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22184
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sinha, S. S. (2016). Trauma-induced insomnia: A novel model for trauma and sleep research. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 25, 74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2015.01.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon, G. (2018). Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in sports: A historical and narrative review. Developmental Neuropsychology, 43(4), 279–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2018.1447575
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stein, M. B., & McAllister, T. W. (2009). Exploring the convergence of posttraumatic stress disorder and mild traumatic brain injury. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 166(7), 768–776. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.08101604
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terrio, H., Brenner, L. A., Ivins, B. J., Cho, J. M., Helmick, K., Schwab, K., Scally, K., Bretthauer, R., & Warden, D. (2009). Traumatic brain injury screening: Preliminary findings in a US Army brigade combat team. The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 24(1), 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1097/HTR.0b013e31819581d8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vasterling, J. J., Verfaellie, M., & Sullivan, K. D. (2009). Mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder in returning veterans: Perspectives from cognitive neuroscience. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(8), 674–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.08.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verfaellie, M., Lafleche, G., Spiro, A., III, Tun, C., & Bousquet, K. (2013). Chronic postconcussion symptoms and functional outcomes in OEF/OIF veterans with self-report of blast exposure. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 19(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617712000902
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voormolen, D. C., Cnossen, M. C., Polinder, S., von Steinbuechel, N., Vos, P. E., & Haagsma, J. A. (2018). Divergent classification methods of post-concussion syndrome after mild traumatic brain injury: Prevalence rates, risk factors, and functional outcome. Journal of Neurotrauma, 35(11), 1233–1241. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2017.5257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldron-Perrine, B., Hennrick, H., Spencer, R. J., Pangilinan, P. H., & Bieliauskas, L. A. (2014). Postconcussive symptom report in polytrauma: Influence of mild traumatic brain injury and psychiatric distress. Military Medicine, 179(8), 856–864. https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-13-00282
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wojtowicz, M., Silverberg, N. D., Bui, E., Zafonte, R., Simon, N., & Iverson, G. L. (2017). Psychiatric comorbidity and psychosocial problems among treatment-seeking veterans with a history of mild traumatic brain injury. Focus (American Psychiatric Publishing), 15(4), 384–389. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.focus.20170028
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). (2010). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems, 10th Revision. https://www.who.int/classifications/icd/ICD10Volume2_en_2010.pdf.
   Google Scholar