3,381
Views
7
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Sepsis, parenteral vaccination and skin disinfection

Pages 2546-2559 | Received 21 Mar 2016, Accepted 12 May 2016, Published online: 26 Jul 2016

References

  • McDonnell G. Sterilization and disinfection. Encyclopaedia of Microbiology (3rd edition) 2009; 529-48.
  • Darouiche RO, Wall MJ, Itani KMF, Otterson MF, Webb AL, Carrick MM, Miller HJ, Awad SS, Crosby CT, Mosier MC, et al. Chlorhexidine – Alcohol versus Povidine - Iodine for surgical-site antisepsis. N Engl J Med 2010; 362:18-26; PMID:20054046; http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0810988
  • Chaiyakunapruk N, Veenstra DL, Lipsky B, Saint S. Chlorhexidine compared with povidine-iodine solution for vascular catheter-site care. A meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 2002; 136:792-801; PMID:12044127; http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-136-11-200206040-00007
  • Hall KK, Lyman JA. Updated review of blood culture contamination. Clin Micro Rev 2006; 19:788-802; PMID:17041144; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00062-05
  • Lee CK, Ho PL, Chan NK, Mak A, Hong J, Lin CK. Impact of donor arm skin disinfection on the bacterial contamination rate of platelet concentrates. Vox Sang 2002; 83:204-8; PMID:12366760; http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1423-0410.2002.00219.x
  • Recommendaciones nacionales de Vacunacion, Ministerio de Salud, Argentina 2012.
  • Canadian Immunization Guide Part 1. Public Health Agency of Canada 2013.
  • Immunization Guidelines, Dubai Health Authority, Department of Public Health & Safety. Health Policy and Strategy Sector
  • IAP Committee on Immunization. Indian Academy of Pediatrics Mumbai, India 2012.
  • Immunisation Handbook. Epidemiology Unit, Ministry of Health, Sri Lanka 2012.
  • Centers For Disease Control and Prevention. General recommendations on Immunization: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) MMWR 2011; 60(RR02):1-60.
  • The Australian Immunization Handbook. National Health and Medical Research Council 2014.
  • Immunisation against Infectious Disease (The Green Book), Department of Health, London, UK 2013.
  • Immunisation Guidelines, HSE National Immunisation Office, Dublin, Ireland 2014.
  • New Zealand Immunisation Handbook. Ministry of Health, Wellington, New Zealand 2014.
  • Manual de Normas e Procedimentos para Vacinação, Ministerio da Saude, Brazil. 2014
  • Hutin Y, Hauri A, Chiarello L, Catlin M, Stilwell B, Ghebrehiwet T, Garner J; Injection Safety Best Practices Development Group. Best infection control practices for intradermal, subcutaneous and intramuscular needle injections. Bull WHO 2003; 81:491-500; PMID:12973641
  • Elek SD, Conen PE. The virulence of Staphylococcus pyogenes for man. A study of the problems of wound infection. Brit J Exp Path 1957; 38:573-86; PMID:13499821
  • Del Mar CB, Glasziou PP, Spinks AB, Sanders SL. Is Isopropyl alcohol swabbing before injection really necessary? Med J Aust 2001; 174:306; PMID:11297122
  • Sutton CD, White SA, Edwards R, Lewis MH. A prospective controlled trial of the efficacy of isopropyl alcohol wipes before venesection in surgical patients. Ann R Coll Surg England 1999; 81:183-6.
  • Grabe N, Jakoben C-JB, Damm MD. Skin disinfection before intravenous cannulation – intraluminal contamination after disinfection with 70% isopropyl alcohol. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1985; 29:764-6; PMID:4082876; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-6576.1985.tb02297.x.
  • Koivisto VA, Felig P. Is skin preparation necessary before insulin injection. Lancet 1978; 1072-3; PMID:77369; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(78)90916-9.
  • Sakpal TV. Sample size estimation in clinical trial. Perspect Clin Res 2010; 1:67-9; PMID:21829786.
  • Sherman T, Ferguson J, Davis W, Russo M, Argintar E. Does the use of ultrasound affect contamination of musculoskeletal injection sites. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2015; 473:351-7; PMID:25163689; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11999-014-3903-4.
  • Reichel M, Heisig P, Kohlmann T, Kampf G. Alcohols for skin antisepsis at clinically relevant skin sites. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53:4778-82; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00582-09.
  • Khawaja RA, Sikander R, Qureshi R, Jareno RJM. Routine skin preparation with 70% isopropyl alcohol swabs: Is it necessary before injection? Quasi study. JLUMHS 2013; 12:109-14.
  • Candela S, Pergolizzi S, Ragni P, Cavuto S, Nobilio L, Di Mario S, Dragosevic V, Groth N, Magrini N; SaFoH1N1 working group. An early (3–6 weeks) active surveillance study to assess the safety of pandemic influenza vaccine, Focetria, in a province of Emilia – Romagna region, Italy – part one. Vaccine 2013; 31:1431-7; PMID:22766247; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.06.030.
  • Hatz C, Beck B, Steffen R, Genton B, d'Acremont V, Louton L, Hartmann K, Herzog C. Real-life versus package insert: a post-marketing study on adverse-event rates of the virosomal hepatitis A vaccine Epaxal® in healthy travellers. Vaccine 2011; 29:5000-6; PMID:21569813; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.04.099.
  • Halperin S, Kohl KS, Gidudu J, Ball L, Hammer SJ, Heath P, Hennig R, Labadie J, Rothstein E, Schuind A, et al. Cellulitis at injection site: Case definition and guidelines for collection, analysis and presentation of immunization safety data. Vaccine 2007; 25:5803-20; PMID:17548135; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.04.059.
  • Goettsch WG, Bouwes Bavinck JN, Harings RMC. Burden of illness of bacterial cellulitis and erysipelas of the leg in the Netherlands. JEADV 2006; 20:834-9; PMID:16898907.
  • McCall N, Harlow J, Dayhoff D. Rates of hospitalization for ambulating care sensitive conditions in the Medicare + Choice population. Health Care Financ Rev 2001; 22:127-45; PMID:25372877.
  • Baggs J, Gee J, Lewis E, Fowler G, Benson P, Lieu T, Naleway A, Klein NP, Baxter R, Belongia E, et al. The Vaccine Safety Datalink: a model for monitoring immunization safety. Pediatrics 2011; 127:S45-53; PMID:21502240; http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-1722H.
  • Jackson LA, Yu O, Nelson JC, Dominguez C, Peterson D, Baxter R, Hambidge SJ, Naleway AL, Belongia EA, Nordin JD, et al. Injection site and risk of medically attended local reactions to acellular pertussis vaccine. Pediatrics 2011; 127:e581-7; PMID:21300679; http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-1886.
  • Jackson LA, Yu O, Nelson J, Belongia EA, Hambidge SJ, Baxter R, Naleway A, Nordin J, Baggs J, Iskander J. Risk of medically attended local reactions following diphtheria toxoid containing vaccines in adolescents and young adults: A Vaccine Safety Datalink study. Vaccine 2009; 27:4912-6; PMID:19567245; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.06.038.
  • Jackson LA, Yu O, Belongia EA, Hambidge SJ, Nelson J, Baxter R, Naleway A, Gay C, Nordin J, Baggs J, et al. Frequency of medically attended adverse events following tetanus and diphtheria toxoid vaccine in adolescents and young adults: a Vaccine Safety Database study. BMC Infect Dis 2009; 9:165-71; PMID:19804643; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-9-165.
  • Jackson LA, Nelson JC, Whitney CG, Neuzil KM, Benson P, Malais D, Baggs J, Mullooly J, Black S, Shay DK. Assessment of the safety of a third dose of pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in the Vaccine Safety Datalink population. Vaccine 2006; 24:151-6; PMID:16122845; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.07.066.
  • Hambidge SJ, Glanz JM, France JM, McClure D, Xu S, Yamasaki K, Jackson L, Mullooly JP, Zangwill KM, Marcy SM, et al. Safety of trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine in children 6 to 23 months old. JAMA 2006; 296:1990-7; PMID:17062862; http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.296.16.1990.
  • Choe YJ, Cho H, Kim SN, Bae G-R, Lee J-K. Serious adverse events following receipt of trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine in Korea 2003–2010. Vaccine 2011; 29:7727-32; PMID:21827815; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.07.129.
  • Kim JH, Cho HY, Hennessey KA, Lee HJ, Bae GR, Kim HC. Adverse events following immunization (AEFI) with the novel influenza A (H1N1) 2009 vaccine: Findings from the national registry of all vaccine recipients and AEFI and the passive surveillance system in South Korea. Jpn J Infect Dis 2012; 6:99-104.
  • Micheletti F, Moretti U, Tridente G, Zanoni G. Consultancy and surveillance of post-immunisation adverse events in the Veneto region of Italy for 1992–2008. Hum Vaccin 2011; 7(supl):234-9; PMID:21301223; http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/hv.7.0.14613.
  • Klar S, Harris T, Wong K, Fediurek J, Deeks SL. Vaccine safety implications of Ontario, Canada's switch from DTaP-IPV to Tdap-IPV for the pre-school booster. Vaccine 2014; 32:6360-3; PMID:25252195; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.09.017.
  • Schmidt MA, Crane B, Mullooly JP, Naleway AL. Frequency of medically attended events following rapid revaccination with trivalent inactivated influenza. Vaccine 2010; 28:7713-5; PMID:20875495; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.09.043.
  • Burwen DR, La Voie L, Braun MM, Houck P, Ball R. Evaluating adverse events after vaccination in the Medicare population. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2007; 16:753-61; PMID:17385786; http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pds.1390.
  • Aderibigbe SA, Osagbemi GK, Bolarinwa OA. Adverse event following immunisation in a Nigerian tertiary health institution. Am J Sci Ind Res 2010; 1:496-9.
  • Gattas VL, Cardoso MRA, Mondini G, Machado CM, Luna EJA. Effectiveness of influenza vaccination of school children in the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil 2009. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2015; 9:323-30; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/irv.12328.
  • Agnandji ST, Asante KP, Lyimo J, Vekemans J, Soulanoudjingar SS, Owusu R, Shomari M, Leach A, Fernandes J, Dosoo D, et al. Evaluation of the safety and immunogenicity of the RTS,S/AS01E malaria candidate vaccine when integrated in the Expanded Program of Immunization. J Infect Dis 2010; 202:1076-87; PMID:20735271; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/656190.
  • Tregnaghi M, Lopez P, Rocha C, Rivera L, David M-P, Ruttimann R, Schuerman L. A new DTPw-HB/Hib comination vaccine for primary and booster vaccination of infants in Latin America. Rev Panam Salud Publica 2006; 19:179-88; PMID:16640847; http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1020-49892006000300006.
  • Abdelnour A, Silas PE, Lamas MRV, Aragon CFG, Chiu N-C, Chiu C-H, Acuña TH, Castrejón Tde L, Izu A, Odrljin T, et al. Safety of a quadrivalent meningococcal serogroups A, C, W and Y conjugate vaccine (MenACWY-CRM) administered with routine infant vaccinations: results of an open-label, randomized, phase 3b controlled study in healthy infants. Vaccine 2014; 32:965-72; PMID:24397906; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.12.034.
  • Klopfer SO, Stek JE, Petrecz M, Reisinger KS, Black SB, Goveia MG, Nicholson O, Gardner JL, Grosso AD, Brown ML, et al. Analysis of safety data in children after receiving two doses of ProQuad® (MMRV). Vaccine 2014; 32:7154-60; PMID:25219563; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.08.067.
  • Rivera Medina DM, Valencia A, de Velasquez A, Huang L-M, Prymula R, Garcia-Sicilia J, Rombo L, David MP, Descamps D, Hardt K, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of the HPV-16/18 ASO4-adjuvanted vaccine: A randomised, controlled trial in adolescent girls. J Adolsc Health 2010; 46:414-21; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.02.006.
  • Tseng HF, Liu A, Sy L, Marcy SM, Fireman B, Weintraub E, Baggs J, Weinmann S, Baxter R, Nordin J, et al. Safety of zoster vaccine in adults from a large managed care cohort: A Vaccine Safety Datalink study. J Intern Med 2012; 271:510-20; PMID:22026504; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2011.02474.x.
  • Glanz JM, Newcomer SR, Hambidge SJ, Daley MF, Narwaney KJ, Xu S, Lee GM, Baggs J, Klein NP, Nordin JD, et al. Safety of trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine in children aged 24–59 months in the Vaccine Safety Datalink. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2011; 165:749-55; PMID:21810637; http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.112.
  • Klein NP, Hansen J, Chao C, Velicer C, Emery M, Slezak J, Lewis N, Deosaransingh K, Sy L, Ackerson B, et al. Safety of quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine administered routinely to females. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2012; 166:1140-8; PMID:23027469; http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2012.1451.
  • Kohl KS, Ball L, Gidudu J, Hammer SJ, Halperin S, Heath P, Hennig R, Labadie J, Rothstein E, Schuind A, et al. Abscess at injection site: case definition and guidelines for collection, analysis and presentation of immunization safety data. Vaccine 2007; 25:5821-38; PMID:17540485; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.04.057.
  • Oka S, Sato M. A thirteen-year followup study of an epidemic of inoculation tuberculosis in children caused by vaccination against pertussis. Am Rev Resp Dis 1963; 84L:462-72.
  • Tamura M, Ogawa G, Sagawa I, Amano S. Observations on an epidemic of cutaneous and lymphatic tuberculosis which followed the use of anti-typhoid vaccine. Am Rev Tubercul Pulmon Diseases 1955; 71:465-72.
  • He F, Hu D, Yu X, Li F, Chen E, Wang X, Huang D, Lin Z, Lin J. An outbreak of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection associated with acupuncture in a private clinic of Zhejiang Province, China 2012. Int J Infect Dis 2014; 29:287-9; PMID:25448339; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2014.08.023.
  • Dixit R, Dixit K, Patil CB, Pawar KS. Injection site abscess due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis following DPT vaccination. Indian J Tuberc 2014; 61:246-9; PMID:25241575.
  • Mishra D, Mohta A, Arora P. Cold abscess of the thigh in an infant. Kathmandu Univ Med J 2013; 41:86-7.
  • Agrawal A, Jain A. Tuberculosis cold abscess. Indian J Pediatr 2007; 74:771-3; PMID:17785903; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12098-007-0137-4.
  • Gonzalez-Santiago TM, Drage LA. Non tuberculous Mycobacteria. Dermatol Clinics 2015; 33:563-77; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.det.2015.03.017.
  • Borghans JGA, Stanford JL. Mycobacterium chelonae in abscesses after injection of diphtheria-pertussis-tetanus-polio vaccine. Am Rev Resp Dis 1973; 107:1-8; PMID:4683319.
  • Owen M, Smith A, Coultras J. Granulomatous lesions occurring at site of injections of vaccines and antibiotics. South Med J 1963; 56:949-52; PMID:13940841; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00007611-196309000-00004.
  • Cayton HR, Morris CA. Injection site streptococcal abscesses in a clinic using disposable syringes. Mon Bull Minist Health Public Health Lab Serv 1966; 25:87-91; PMID:5952345.
  • Chi-Thuong TC, Tho ND, Hoa NT, Phuong NTM, Tuan LV, Diep TS, Lindsay J, et al. An outbreak of severe infections with community-acquired MRSA carrying the Panton-Valentine-Leukocidin following vaccination. PLoS One 2007; 2(9):e822; PMID:17786194; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000822.
  • Simon PA, Chen RT, Elliott JA, Schwartz R. Outbreak of pyogenic abscesses after diphtheria and tetanus toxoid and pertussis vaccination. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993; 12:368-71; PMID:8327295; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-199305000-00003.
  • Stetler HC, Garbe PL, Dwyer DM, Facklam RR, Orenstein WA, West GR, Dudley KJ, Bloch AB. Outbreaks of group A streptococcal abscesses following diphtheria-tetanus toxoid-pertussis vaccination. Pediatrics 1985; 75:299-301; PMID:3881728.
  • Greaves WL, Hinman AR, Facklam RR, Allman KC, Barrett CL, Stetler HC. Streptococcal abscesses following diphtheria-tetanus toxoid-pertussis vaccination. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1982; 1:388-90; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-198211000-00005.
  • Tan NWH, Pan W-J, Yunos HBM, Tan WC, Lim KB-L. Post vaccination abscesses requiring surgical drainage in a tertiary children's hospital in Singapore. J Pediatr Infect Dis 2010; 5:139-47.
  • Kuyubasi SN, Zengin EC, Cirakli A, Cirakli S, Kilic M. Unusual cause of thigh abscess in infant following hepatitis B vaccine administration. J Exp Clin Med 2013; 30:181-2; http://dx.doi.org/10.5835/jecm.omu.30.02.019.
  • Niederman LG, Marcinak JF. Haemophilus influenzae type B abscess after diphtheria-tetanus toxoid-pertussis immunization. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1990; 9:597-8; PMID:2235180; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00006454-199008000-00018.
  • Chaibou MS, Bako H, Salisou L, Yameogo TM, Sambo A, Kim SH, Djingarey MH, Zuber PL, Perea WA, Pezzoli L. Monitoring adverse events following immunization with a new conjugate vaccine against group A meningococcus in Niger. September 2010. Vaccine 2012; 30:5229-34; PMID:22709955; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.06.006.
  • Ouandaogo C-R, Yameogo TM, Diomande FVK, Sawadogo C, Ouedraogo B, Ouedraogo-Traore R, et al. Adverse events following immunization during mass vaccination campaigns at first introduction of a meningococcal A conjugate vaccine in Burkina Faso 2010. Vaccine 2012; 30:B46-51; PMID:22230584; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.12.112.
  • Bentsi-Enchill AD, Zongo I, Khamassi S, Pless R, Thombiano R, Tiendrebeogo S, Nelson CB, Duclos P. Monitoring of adverse events during the 2003 mass vaccination campaign with a trivalent meningococcal A/C/W135 polysaccharide vaccine in Burkina Faso. Vaccine 2007; 25:A72-8; PMID:17544552; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.04.045.
  • Burton DC, Bigogo GM, Audi AO, Williamson J, Munge K, Wafula J, et al. Risk of infection-site abscess among infants receiving a preservative-free, two-dose vial formulation of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in Kenya. PloS ONE 1896; 10(10):e014.
  • Sokhey J. Adverse events following immunization: 1990. Indian Pediatr 1991; 28:593-607; PMID:1748507.
  • Berhane Y, Worku A, Demissie M, Tesfaye N, Asefa N, Aniemaw W, Weldearegawi B, Kebede Y, Shiferaw T, Worku A, et al. Children who received PCV-10 vaccine from a Two-dose vial without preservative are not more likely to develop injection site abscess compared with those who received pentavalent (DPT-Hep B-Hib) vaccine: a longitudinal multi-site study. PloS ONE 9(6):e97376; PMID:24896582; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0097376.
  • Smeets L, Bous A, Heymans O. Necrotizing fasciitis: case report and review of literature. Acta Chir Belg 2007; 107:29-36; PMID:17405595; http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00015458.2007.11680007.
  • Pitta GBB, Dantas JM, Pitta MR, Raposo RC, Seganfredo IB, Gomes MM. Necrotizing fasciitis after influenza vaccine: case report. J Vasc Bras 2011; 10:185-8; http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1677-54492011000200017.
  • Senaran H, Karalezli N, Ogun TC. A very uncommon complication following vaccination: necrotizing fasciitis and myonecrosis: case report. Turkiye Klinikleri J Med Sci 2010; 30:384-6; http://dx.doi.org/10.5336/medsci.2008-8341.
  • Thapa R, Mallick D, Biswas B. Necrotizing fasciitis following BCG vaccination. Indian Pediatr 2011; 48:235-7; PMID:21478557.
  • Okeniyi J, Adegbehingbe O, Dedeke I, Olorunnisola O, Ogunlesi T, Oginni LM. Post-BCG axillary necrotizing fasciitis. Internet J Pediatrics Neonatalol 2005; 6(1)..
  • Thomas MG. Clostridium septicum gas gangrene following intramuscular infection from an influenza vaccine booster. Br J Clin Pract 1990; 44:709-10; PMID:2102204.
  • Popa C, Wever PC, Moviat M. H1N1 vaccination: expect the unexpected. Neth J Med 2011; 69:223, 246; PMID:21646670.
  • Drosos G. Pyomyositis: A literature review. Acta Orthop Belg 2005; 71:9-16; PMID:15792201.
  • Bae Y-J, Choi J-S, Lee YA, Kim S-S, Rha S-H, Jung J-A. A case of pyomyositis due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Korean J Pediatr 2006; 49:1116-9; http://dx.doi.org/10.3345/kjp.2006.49.10.1116.
  • Lew DP, Waldvogel FA. Osteomyelitis. N Eng J Med 1997; 336:999-1007; http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199704033361406.
  • Offiah AC. Acute osteomyelitis, septic arthritis and discitis: differences between neonates and older children. Eur J Radiol 2006; 60:221-32; PMID:16971078; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrad.2006.07.016.
  • Margaretten ME, Kohlwes J, Moore D, Bent S. Does this adult patient have septic arthritis? JAMA 2007; 297:1478-88; PMID:17405973; http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.297.13.1478.
  • Bone RC, Balk RA, Cerra FB, Dellinger RP, Fein AM, Knaus WA, Schein RM, Sibbald EJ. Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. The ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee. American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine Chest 1992; 101:1644-55.
  • Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, Daum RS, Fridkin SK, Gorwitz RJ, et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52:e18-55; PMID:21208910; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciq146.
  • Elzi L, Babouee B, Vogeli N, Laffer R, Dangel M, Frei R, et al. How to discriminate contamination from bloodstream infection due to coagulase-negative staphylococci: a prospective study with 654 patients. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18:E355-61; PMID:22784359; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2012.03964.x.
  • Fowler VG, Olsen MK, Corey GR, Woods CW, Cabell CH, Reller LB, et al. Clinical identifiers of complicated Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia. Arch Intem Med 2003; 163:2066-72; http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.163.17.2066.
  • Chae SH, Kim DH, Kim JW, Kim YT, Kim JB, Choi YS. Multiple subcutaneous abscesses complicating Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia associated with BCG vaccination. Soonchunhyang Med Sci 2013; 19:133-5; http://dx.doi.org/10.15746/sms.13.030.
  • Fullerton HJ, Hills NK, Elkind MS, Dowling MM, Wintermark M, Glaser CA, Tan M, Rivkin MJ, Titomanlio L, Barkovich AJ, et al. Infection, vaccination and childhood arterial ischemic stroke. Neurology 2015; 85:1459-66; PMID:26423434; http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000002065.
  • Levy MM, Fink MP, Marshall JC, Abraham E, Angus D, Cook D, et al. 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International sepsis definitions conference. Intens Care Med 2003; 29:530-8; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00134-003-1662-x.
  • Sood DK, Kumar S, Singh S, Sokhey J. Adverse reactions after measles vaccination in India. Natl Med J India 1995; 8:208-10; PMID:7549850.
  • Plueckhahn VD, Banks J. Fatal haemolytic streptococcal septicaemia following mass inoculation with influenza vaccine. Med J Aust 1970; 1:405-411; PMID:5445853.
  • Rutishauser J, Funke G, Lutticken R, Ruef C. Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome in two patients infected by a colonized surgeon. Infection 1999; 27:259-60; PMID:10885838; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s150100050024.
  • Italiano CM, Toi CS, Chan SP, Dwyer DE. Prolonged varicella viraemia and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome following varicella vaccination of a health care worker. Med J Aust 2009; 190:451-3; PMID:19374621.
  • Kirby JP, Mazuski JE. Prevention of surgical site infection. Surg Clin N Am 2009; 89:365-89; PMID:19281889; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.suc.2009.01.001.
  • Wiley AM, Ha'eri GB. Routes of infection: a study using “tracer particles” in the orthopaedic operating room. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1979; 139:150-5; PMID:455832.
  • Li GQ, Guo FF, Ou Y, Dong GW, Zhou W. Epidemiology and outcomes of surgical site infections following orthopedic surgery. Am J Infect Control 2013; 41:1268-71; PMID:23890741; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2013.03.305.
  • Yavuz SS, Tarcin O, Ada S, Dincer F, Toraman S, Birbudak S, Eren E, Yekeler I. Incidence, aetiology and control of sternal site infections. J Hosp Infect 2013; 85:206-12; PMID:24035582; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2013.07.010.
  • Babcock HM, Matava MJ, Fraser V. Post arthroscopy surgical site infections: review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34:65-71; PMID:11731947; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/324627.
  • Diamond MR, O'Brien-Malone A. Vaccination, consent and multidose vials. Med J Aust 2011; 194:414-6; PMID:21495943.
  • Chambers HF. Cellulitis by any other name. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56:1763-4; PMID:23457076; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cit126.
  • Chira S, Miller LG. Staphylococcus aureus is the most common identified cause of cellulitis: A systematic review. Epidemol Infect 2010; 138:313-7; http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0950268809990483.
  • Gunderson CG, Martinello RA. A systematic review of bacteremjias in cellulitis and erysipelas. J Infect 2012; 64:148-55; PMID:22101078; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2011.11.004.
  • Jeng A, Beheshti M, Li J, Nathan R. The role of β-hemolytic streptococci in causing diffuse, non-culturable cellulitis. Medicine 2010; 89:217-26; PMID:20616661; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MD.0b013e3181e8d635.
  • Ray GT, Suaya JA, Baxter R. Microbiology of skin and soft tissue infections in the age of community-aquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Diag Microbiol Infect Dis 2013; 76:24-30; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2013.02.020.
  • Van Zyl L, du Plessis J, Viljoen J. Cutaneous tuberculosis overview and current treatment regimens. Tuberculosis 2015; 95:629-38; PMID:26616847; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tube.2014.12.006.
  • www.walmart.com/ip/Curad-Sterile-Alcohol-Swabs-200-count.
  • https://www.priceline.com.au/kendall-webcol-skin-cleansing-alcohol Swabs 200 pack.
  • How much does cellulitis treatment cost? http://healthcosthelper.com>Health&PersonalCare>DermatologyandSkinCare>CellulitisTreatment.
  • Hospital performance. Costs of acute admitted patients in public hospitals in 2011–12. www.myhospitals.gov.au/our-reports/cost-of-acute-admitted-patients-in -public-hospitals-2011-12.
  • Guyatt G, Cairns J, Churchill D, Cook D, Haynes B, Hirsh J, et al. Evidence – based medicine: a new approach to teaching the practice of medicine. JAMA 1992; 268:2420-5; PMID:1404801; http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1992.03490170092032.
  • Kault D. False negatives in evidence based medicine. J Med Stat Inform 2014; 2:5; http://dx.doi.org/10.7243/2053-7662-2-5.