The Role of Trust and Attitudes toward Democracy in the Dissemination of Disinformation—a Comparative Analysis of Six Democracies

References

• Aalberg, T., and J. Curran. 2012. “How Media Inform Democracy.” In A Comparatice Approach. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Allington, D., B. Duffy, S. Wessely, N. Dhavan, and J. Rubin. 2021. “Health-Protective Behaviour, Social Media Usage, and Conspiracy Belief during the COVID-19 Public Health Emergency.” Psychological Medicine 51 (10): 1763–1769.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blassnig, S., P. Rodi, and K. Tenenboim-Weinblatt. 2019. “Dimensions, Speakers, and Targets: Basic Patterns in European Media Reporting on Populism.” In Communicating Populism. Comparing Interactions between Politicians, Media, and Citizens across Europe, edited by C. Reinemann, J. Stanyer, T. Aalberg, F. Esser, and C. de Vreese. New York and London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Brennen, A. J. S., F. M. Simon, P. N. Howard, and R. K. Nielsen. 2020. Types, Sources, and Claims of COVID-19 Misinformation. Oxford, UK: Reuters Institut for the Study of Journalism. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:178db677-fa8b-491d-beda-4bacdc9d7069.
   Google Scholar
• Brezzi, M., S. Gonzalez, D. Nguyen, and M. Prats. 2021. “An Updated OECD Framework on Drivers of Trust in Public Institutions to Meet Current and Future Challenges.” (OECD Working Papers on Public Governance No. 48; OECD Working Papers on Public Governance, Vol. 48).
   Google Scholar
• Bromme, L., and T. Rothmund. 2021. “Trust and Involvement as Higher-Order Factors of General Attitudes Towards Politics. Testing a Structural Model Across 26 Democracies.” Political Psychology 42 (6): 1071–1090.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brüggemann, M., S. Engesser, F. Büchel, E. Humprecht, and L. Castro. 2014. “Hallin and Mancini Revisited: Four Empirical Types of Western Media Systems.” Journal of Communication 64 (6): 1037–1065.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchanan, T., and V. Benson. 2019. “Spreading Disinformation on Facebook: Do Trust in Message Source, Risk Propensity, or Personality Affect the Organic Reach of “Fake News”?” Social Media + Society 5 (4): 205630511988865.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chadwick, A., and C. Vaccari. 2019. News Sharing on UK Social Media: Misinformation, Disinformation, and Correction. Loughborough, UK: Loughborough University. https://www.lboro.ac.uk/research/online-civic-culture-centre/news-events/articles/o3c-1-survey-report-news-sharing-misinformation/
   Google Scholar
• Coppedge, M., J. Gerring, C. H. Knutsen, S. I. Lindberg, J. Teorell, D. Altman, M. Bernhard, et al. 2022.“V-Dem Codebook v12.”Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project.
   Google Scholar
• Dekeyser, D., andH. Roose. 2021. “Unpacking Populism: Using Correlational Class Analysis to Understand How People Interrelate Populist, Pluralist, and Elitist Attitudes.” Swiss Political Science Review 27 (2): 476–495.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engelke, K. M., V. Hase, and F. Wintterlin. 2019. “On Measuring Trust and Distrust in Journalism: Reflection of the Status Quo and Suggestions for the Road Ahead.” Journal of Trust Research 9 (1): 66–86.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ernst, N., F. Esser, S. Blassnig, and S. Engesser. 2019. “Favorable Opportunity Structures for Populist Communication: Comparing Different Types of Politicians and Issues in Social Media, Television and the Press.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 24 (2): 165–188.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Esser, F., C. H. de Vreese, J. Strömbäck, P. van Aelst, T. Aalberg, J. Stanyer, G. Lengauer, et al. 2012. “Political Information Opportunities in Europe.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 17 (3): 247–274.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frischlich, L., and E. Humprecht. 2021. Trust, Democratic Resilience, and the Infodemic (Issue February). Tel Aviv: Israel Public Policy Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Guess, A., J. Nagler, and J. Tucker. 2019. “Less than You Think: Prevalence and Predictors of Fake News Dissemination on Facebook.” Science Advances 5 (1): 1–9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hallin, D. C., and P. Mancini. 2004. Comparing Media Systems. Three Models of Media and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Halpern, D., S. Valenzuela, J. Katz, and J. P. Miranda. 2019. “From Belief in Conspiracy Theories to Trust in Others: Which Factors Influence Exposure, Believing and Sharing Fake News.” In Social Computing and Social Media. Design, Human Behavior and Analytics, edited by G. Meiselwitz, 217–232. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Hameleers, M. 2020. “Populist Disinformation: Exploring Intersections between Online Populism and Disinformation in the Us and The Netherlands.” Politics and Governance 8 (1): 146–157.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hameleers, M., E. Humprecht, J. Möller, J. Lühring, M. Hameleers, and J. Möller. 2021. “Degrees of Deception: The Effects of Different Types of COVID-19 Misinformation and the Effectiveness of Corrective Information in Crisis Times Information in Crisis Times.” Information, Communication & Society. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1080/1369118X.2021.2021270.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hameleers, M., and T. G. L. A. van der Meer. 2020. “Misinformation and Polarization in a High-Choice Media Environment: How Effective Are Political Fact-Checkers?” Communication Research 47 (2): 227–250.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hameleers, M., T. G. L. A. van der Meer, and A. Brosius. 2020. “Feeling “Disinformed” Lowers Compliance with COVID-19 Guidelines: Evidence from the US, UK, Netherlands and Germany.” Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review 1(COVID-19 and Misinformatin).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hanitzsch, T., A. Van Dalen, and N. Steindl. 2018. “Caught in the Nexus: A Comparative and Longitudinal Analysis of Public Trust in the Press.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 23 (1): 3–23.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoewe, J., C. Peacock, B. Kim, and M. Barnidge. 2020. “The Relationship Between Fox News Use and Americans’ Policy Preferences Regarding Refugees and Immigrants.” International Journal of Communication 14: 21.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmberg, S., S. Lindberg, and R. Svensson. 2017. “Trust in Parliament.” Journal of Public Affairs 17 (1–2): e1647.
   Google Scholar
• Holt, K., T. Ustad Figenschou, and L. Frischlich. 2019. “Key Dimensions of Alternative News Media.” Digital Journalism 7 (7): 860–869.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopp, T., P. Ferrucci, and C. J. Vargo. 2020. “Why Do People Share Ideologically Extreme, False, and Misleading Content on Social Media? A Self-Report and Trace Data-Based Analysis of Countermedia Content Dissemination on Facebook and Twitter.” Human Communication Research 46 (4): 357–384.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard, P., and S. Bradshaw. 2018. “The Global Organization of Social Media Disinformation Campaigns.” Journal of International Affairs 71 (1.5).
   Google Scholar
• Humprecht, E., F. Esser, P. V. Aelst, A. Staender, and F. Esser. 2021. “The Sharing of Disinformation in Cross-National Comparison: Analyzing Patterns of Resilience.” Information, Communication & Society. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1080/1369118X.2021.2006744.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humprecht, E., F. Esser, and P. Van Aelst. 2020. “Resilience to Online Disinformation: A Framework for Cross-National Comparative Research.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 25 (3): 493–516.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knobloch-Westerwick, S.,M. Robinson,R. Frazer, andE. Schutz. 2021. ““Affective News” and Attitudes: A Multi-Topic Experiment of Attitude Impacts from Political News and Fiction.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 98 (4): 1078–1103.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreiss, D. 2018. “The Media Are about Identity, Not Information.” Trump and the Media 93–100. doi: 10.7551/mitpress/11464.003.0016.
   Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., U. K. H. Ecker, C. M. Seifert, N. Schwarz, and J. Cook. 2012. “Misinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and Successful Debiasing.” Psychological Science in the Public Interest: A Journal of the American Psychological Society 13 (3): 106–131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewandowsky, S., J. Cook, P. Schmid, D. L. Holford, A. Finn, J. Leask, A. Thomson, et al. 2021. The COVID-19 Vaccine Communication Handbook. A Practical Guide for Improving Vaccine Communication and Fighting Misinformation. Available at: https://sks.to/c19vax.
   Google Scholar
• Lijphart, A. 2012. Patterns of Democracy. Government Forms and Performance in Thirty-Six Countries. New Haven: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Loomba, S., A. de Figueiredo, S. J. Piatek, K. de Graaf, and H. J. Larson. 2021. “Measuring the Impact of COVID-19 Vaccine Misinformation on Vaccination Intent in the UK and USA.” Nature Human Behaviour 5 (3): 337–348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marwick, A., and W. C. Partin. 2022. “Constructing Alternative Facts: Populist Expertise and the QAnon Conspiracy.” SocArXiv. Advance online publication. doi: 10.31235/osf.io/ru4b8.
   Google Scholar
• Metzger, M. J., A. J. Flanagin, P. Mena, S. Jiang, and C. Wilson. 2021. “From Dark to Light: The Many Shades of Sharing Misinformation Online.” Media and Communication 9 (1): 134–143.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morosoli, S., P. Van Aelst, E. Humprecht, A. Staender, and F. Esser. 2022. “Identifying the Drivers Behind the Dissemination of Online Misinformation: A Study on Political Attitudes and Individual Characteristics in the Context of Engaging With Misinformation on Social Media.” American Behavioral Scientist. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1177/00027642221118300.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Müller, P., and A. Schulz. 2021. “Alternative Media for a Populist Audience? Exploring Political and Media Use Predictors of Exposure to Breitbart, Sputnik, and Co.” Information, Communication & Society 24 (2): 277–293.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newman, N., R. Fletcher, A. Schulz, S. Andı, C. T. Robertson, and R. K. Nielsen. 2021. Digital News Report 2021. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism.
   Google Scholar
• Newman, N., R. Fletcher, C. T. Robertson, K. Eddy, and R. K. Nielsen. 2022. Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2022. 164.
   Google Scholar
• Ognyanova, K., D. Lazer, R. E. Robertson, and C. Wilson. 2020. “Misinformation in Action: Fake News Exposure is Linked to Lower Trust in Media, Higher Trust in Government When Your Side is in Power.” Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review 1 (4): 1–19.
   Google Scholar
• Osmundsen, M., A. Bor, P. B. Vahlstrup, A. Bechmann, and M. B. Petersen. 2021. “Partisan Polarization Is the Primary Psychological Motivation behind Political Fake News Sharing on Twitter.” American Political Science Review 115 (3): 999–1015.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, M. B., A. Bor, F. Jørgensen, and M. F. Lindholt. 2021. “Transparent Communication about Negative Features of COVID-19 Vaccines Decreases Acceptance but Increases Trust.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118 (29).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen, M. B., M. Osmundsen, and K. Arceneaux. 2018. “A “Need for Chaos” and the Sharing of Hostile Political Rumors in Advanced Democracies.” 114th Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, August, 1–42.
   Google Scholar
• Quandt, T. 2018. “Dark Participation.” Media and Communication 6 (4): 36–48.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rathje, S., J. J. V. Bavel, and S. V. D. Linden. 2021. Out-Group Animosity Drives Engagement on Social Media. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 118(26):e2024292118. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2024292118.
   Google Scholar
• Ryan, T. J., and Y. A. N. N. A. Krupnikov. 2021. “Split Feelings: Understanding Implicit and Explicit Political Persuasion.” American Political Science Review 115 (4): 1424–1441.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shin, J., and K. Thorson. 2017. “Partisan Selective Sharing: The Biased Diffusion of Fact-Checking Messages on Social Media.” Journal of Communication 67 (2): 233–255.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stecula, D. A., and M. Pickup. 2021. “How Populism and Conservative Media Fuel Conspiracy Beliefs about COVID-19 and What It Means for COVID-19 Behaviors.” Research & Politics 8 (1): 205316802199397.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sternisko, A., A. Cichocka, and J. J. Van Bavel. 2020. “The Dark Side of Social Movements: Social Identity, Non-Conformity, and the Lure of Conspiracy Theories.” Current Opinion in Psychology 35: 1–6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sterrett, D., D. Malato, J. Benz, L. Kantor, T. Tompson, T. Rosenstiel, J. Sonderman, and K. Loker. 2019. “Who Shared It?: Deciding What News to Trust on Social Media.” Digital Journalism 7 (6): 783–801.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stier, S., N. Kirkizh, C. Froio, and R. Schroeder. 2020. “Populist Attitudes and Selective Exposure to Online News: A Cross-Country Analysis Combining Web Tracking and Surveys.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 25 (3): 426–446.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strömbäck, J., Y. Tsfati, H. Boomgaarden, A. Damstra, E. Lindgren, R. Vliegenthart, and T. Lindholm. 2020. “News Media Trust and Its Impact on Media Use: Toward a Framework for Future Research.” Annals of the International Communication Association 44 (2): 139–156.
   Google Scholar
• Stubenvoll, M., R. Heiss, and J. Matthes. 2021. “Media Trust Under Threat: Antecedents and Consequences of Misinformation Perceptions on Social Media.” International Journal of Communication 15: 2765–2786.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorson, E. 2016. “Belief Echoes: The Persistent Effects of Corrected Misinformation.” Political Communication 33 (3): 460–480.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valenzuela, S., D. Halpern, and F. Araneda. 2022. “A Downward Spiral? A Panel Study of Misinformation and Media Trust in Chile.” The International Journal of Press/Politics 27 (2): 353–373.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Bavel, J. J., E. A. Harris, P. Pärnamets, S. Rathje, K. C. Doell, and J. A. Tucker. 2021. “Political Psychology in the Digital (Mis)Information Age: A Model of News Belief and Sharing.” Social Issues and Policy Review 15 (1): 84–113.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Meer, T., and A. Hakhverdian. 2017. “Political Trust as the Evaluation of Process and Performance: A Cross-National Study of 42 European Countries.” Political Studies 65 (1): 81–102.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vraga, E. K., and M. Tully. 2021. “News Literacy, Social Media Behaviors, and Skepticism toward Information on Social Media.” Information, Communication & Society 24 (2): 150–166.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wardle, C., and H. Derakhshan. 2017. “Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework for Research and Policy Making (Council of Europe Report).” Council of Europe Report.
   Google Scholar
• Weeks, B. E. 2015. “Emotions, Partisanship, and Misperceptions: How Anger and Anxiety Moderate the Effect of Partisan Bias on Susceptibility to Political Misinformation.” Journal of Communication 65 (4): 699–719.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weeks, B. E., and H. Gil de Zúñiga. 2021. “What’s Next? Six Observations for the Future of Political Misinformation Research.” American Behavioral Scientist 65 (2): 277–289.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yu, W., B. Payton, M. Sun, W. Jia, and G. Huang. 2022. “Toward an Integrated Framework for Misinformation and Correction Sharing: A Systematic Review across Domains.” New Media & Society. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1177/14614448221116569.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmermann, F., and M. Kohring. 2020. “Mistrust, Disinforming News, and Vote Choice: A Panel Survey on the Origins and Consequences of Believing Disinformation in the 2017 German Parliamentary Election.” Political Communication 37 (2): 215–237.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar