107
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Balamuthia mandrillaris: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment

, ORCID Icon &
Pages 111-119 | Received 09 Feb 2020, Accepted 16 Apr 2020, Published online: 05 May 2020

References

  • Matin A, Siddiqui R, Jayasekera S, et al. Increasing importance of Balamuthia mandrillaris. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2008;21(3):435–448.
  • Visvesvara GS, Moura H, Schuster FL. Pathogenic and opportunistic free-living amoebae: acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia mandrillaris, Naegleria fowleri, and Sappinia diploidea. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2007;50(1):1–26.
  • Siddiqui R, Khan NA. Balamuthia mandrillaris: morphology, biology, and virulence. Trop Parasitol. 2015;5(1):15.
  • Laurie MT, White CV, Retallack H, et al. Functional assessment of 2,177 US and international drugs identifies the quinoline nitroxoline as a potent amoebicidal agent against the pathogen Balamuthia mandrillaris. mBio. 2018;9(5):e02051–18.
  • Yera H, Dupouy-Camet J, Jackson JW, et al. In vitro growth, cytopathic effects and clearance of monolayers by clinical isolates of Balamuthia mandrillaris in human skin cell cultures. Exp Parasitol. 2015;156:61–67.
  • Cope J, Puttagunta R, Gomez J, et al. Clinical features of Balamuthia mandrillaris disease in the United States, 1974–2014. In Open Forum Infect Dis. 2015;2(1):1343.
  • Schuster FL, Yagi S, Gavali S, et al. Under the radar: balamuthia amebic encephalitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48(7):879–887.
  • Laurie MT, White CV, Retallack H, et al. Repurposing the quinoline antibiotic nitroxoline to treat infections caused by the brain-eating amoeba Balamuthia mandrillaris. bioRxiv. 2018;e331785. DOI: 10.1101/331785
  • Siddiqui R, Khan NA. Balamuthia amoebic encephalitis: an emerging disease with fatal consequences. Microbiol Pathogen. 2008;44(2):89–97.
  • Jung S, Schelper RL, Visvesvara GS, et al. Balamuthia mandrillaris meningoencephalitis in an immunocompetent patient: an unusual clinical course and a favorable outcome. Arch Path Lab Med. 2004;128(4):466–468.
  • Bakardjiev A, Azimi PH, Ashouri N, et al. Amebic encephalitis caused by Balamuthia mandrillaris: report of four cases. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2003;22(5):447–453.
  • Katz JD, Ropper AH, Adelman L, et al. A case of Balamuthia mandrillaris meningoencephalitis. Arch Neurol. 2000;57(8):1210–1212.
  • Denney CF, Iragui VJ, Zak LU, et al. Amebic meningoencephalitis caused by Balamuthia mandrillaris: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;25(6):1354–1358.
  • Deol I, Robledo L, Meza A, et al. Encephalitis due to a free-living amoeba (Balamuthia mandrillaris): case report with literature review. Surg Neurol. 2000;53(6):611–616.
  • Kodet R, Nohýnková E, Tichý M, et al. Amebic encephalitis caused by Balamuthia mandrillaris in a Czech child: description of the first case from Europe. Pathol Res Pract. 1998;194(6):423–429.
  • Martínez DY, Seas C, Bravo F, et al. Successful treatment of Balamuthia mandrillaris amoebic infection with extensive neurological and cutaneous involvement. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51(2):e7–11.
  • Jayasekera S, Sissons J, Tucker J, et al. Post-mortem culture of Balamuthia mandrillaris from the brain and cerebrospinal fluid of a case of granulomatous amoebic meningoencephalitis, using human brain microvascular endothelial cells. J Med Microbiol. 2004;53(10):1007–1012.
  • Tavares M, da Costa JM, Carpenter SS, et al. Diagnosis of first case of Balamuthia amoebic encephalitis in Portugal by immunofluorescence and PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44(7):2660–2663.
  • Deetz TR, Sawyer MH, Billman G, et al. Successful treatment of Balamuthia amoebic encephalitis: presentation of 2 cases. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(10):1304–1312.
  • Pritzker AS, Kim BK, Agrawal D, et al. Fatal granulomatous amebic encephalitis caused by Balamuthia mandrillaris presenting as a skin lesion. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2004;50(2):38–41.
  • Huang ZH, Ferrante A, Carter RF. Serum antibodies to Balamuthia mandrillaris, a free-living amoeba recently demonstrated to cause granulomatous amoebic encephalitis. J Infect Dis. 1999;179(5):1305–1308.
  • Booton GC, Carmichael JR, Visvesvara GS, et al. Identification of Balamuthia mandrillaris by PCR assay using the mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene as a target. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41(1):453–455.
  • Yagi S, Booton GC, Visvesvara GS, et al. Detection of Balamuthia mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene DNA in clinical specimens by PCR. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43(7):3192–3197.
  • Qvarnstrom Y, Visvesvara GS, Sriram R, et al. Multiplex real-time PCR assay for simultaneous detection of Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia mandrillaris, and NaegleriaNaegleria fowleri. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44(10):3589–3595.
  • Wilson MR, Shanbhag NM, Reid MJ, et al. Diagnosing Balamuthia mandrillaris encephalitis with metagenomic deep sequencing. Ann Neurol. 2015;78(5):722–730.
  • Wilson MR, Naccache SN, Samayoa E, et al. Actionable diagnosis of neuroleptospirosis by next-generation sequencing. New Eng J Med. 2014;370(25):2408–2417.
  • Ong TY, Khan NA, Siddiqui R. Brain-eating amoebae: predilection sites in the brain and disease outcome. J Clin Microbiol. 2017;55(7):1989–1997.
  • Rocha-Azevedo B, Jamerson M, Cabral GA, et al. The interaction between the amoeba Balamuthia mandrillaris and extracellular matrix glycoproteins in vitro. Parasitol. 2007;134(1):51–58.
  • Matin A, Siddiqui R, Jung SY, et al. Balamuthia mandrillaris interactions with human brain microvascular endothelial cells in vitro. J Med Microbiol. 2007;56(8):1110–1115.
  • Shadrach WS, Radam E, Flieger A, et al. The pathogenic amoeba Balamuthia mandrillaris possesses cell-associated phospholipase A, lysophospholipase A, and lipase activities. Int J Med Microbiol. 2004;293:100.
  • Haider R. Colorimetric determination of phospholipase activities in Balamuthia mandrillaris. Am J Biochem Biotechnol. 2007;3:171–179.
  • Matin A, Khan NA. Demonstration and partial characterization of ecto‐ATPase in Balamuthia mandrillaris and its possible role in the host‐cell interactions. Lett Appl Microbiol. 2008;47(4):348–354.
  • Kiderlen AF, Tata PS, Oezel M, et al. Cytopathogenicity of Balamuthia mandrillaris, an opportunistic causative agent of granulomatous amebic encephalitis. J Euk Microbiol. 2006;53(6):456–463.
  • Dunnebacke TH. The ameba Balamuthia mandrillaris feeds by entering into mammalian cells in culture. J Euk Microbiol. 2007;54(5):452–464.
  • Matin A, Stins M, Kim KS, et al. Balamuthia mandrillaris exhibits metalloprotease activities. FEMS Immunol Med Microbio. 2006;47(1):83–91.
  • Jayasekera S, Matin A, Sissons J, et al. Balamuthia mandrillaris stimulates interleukin-6 release in primary human brain microvascular endothelial cells via a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent pathway. Microb Infect. 2005;7(13):1345–1351.
  • de Vries HE, Blom-Roosemalen MC, van Oosten M, et al. The influence of cytokines on the integrity of the blood-brain barrier in vitro. J Neuroimmunol. 1996;64(1):37–43.
  • Bravo FG, Alvarez PJ, Gotuzzo E. Balamuthia mandrillaris infection of the skin and central nervous system: an emerging disease of concern to many specialties in medicine. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2011;24(2):112–117.
  • Bravo FG, Cabrera J, Gotuzzo E, et al. Cutaneous manifestations of infection by free-living amebas. Vol. 6; 2006. p. 49–55. doi:10.1016/B978-0-443-06790-7.50010-7
  • Cary LC, Maul E, Potter C, et al. Balamuthia mandrillaris meningoencephalitis: survival of a pediatric patient. Pediatrics. 2010;125(3):e699–703.
  • Girard RM, Crispim M, Stolić I, et al. An aromatic diamidine that targets kinetoplast DNA, impairs the cell cycle in Trypanosoma cruzi, and diminishes trypomastigote release from infected mammalian host cells. Antimicrob Agent Chemother. 2016;60(10):5867–5877.
  • Perrine D, Chenu JP, Georges P, et al. Amoebicidal efficiencies of various diamidines against two strains of Acanthamoeba polyphaga. Antimicrob Agent Chemother. 1995;39(2):339–342.
  • Schneider-Poetsch T, Ju J, Eyler DE, et al. Inhibition of eukaryotic translation elongation by cycloheximide and lactimidomycin. Nat Chem Biol. 2010;6(3):209.
  • Bulsara KG, Cassagnol M. Amlodipine. In: InStatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519508/
  • Peregrine AS, Mamman M. Pharmacology of diminazene: a review. Acta Trop. 1993;54:185–203.
  • Vermes A, Guchelaar HJ, Dankert J. Flucytosine: a review of its pharmacology, clinical indications, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and drug interactions. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000;46(2):171–179.
  • Jenner P, Katzenschlager R. Apomorphine-pharmacological properties and clinical trials in Parkinson’s disease. Parkinson Relat Disord. 2016;33:S13–21.
  • Leem SH, Park JE, Kim IS, et al. The possible mechanism of action of ciclopirox olamine in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell. 2003;15(1):55–61.
  • Pinto-Martinez AK, Rodriguez-Durán J, Serrano-Martin X, et al. Mechanism of action of miltefosine on Leishmania donovani involves the impairment of acidocalcisome function and the activation of the sphingosine-dependent plasma membrane Ca2+ channel. Antimicrob Agent Chemother. 2018;62(1):e01614–01617.
  • Aqeel Y, Iqbal J, Siddiqui R, et al. Anti-Acanthamoebic properties of resveratrol and demethoxycurcumin. Exp Parasitol. 2012;132(4):519–523.
  • David JM, Rajasekaran AK, Gramicidin A. A new mission for an old antibiotic. J Kid Can VHL. 2015;2(1):15.
  • Garris PA, Budygin EA, Phillips PE, et al. A role for presynaptic mechanisms in the actions of nomifensine and haloperidol. Neurosci. 2003;118(3):819–829.
  • Ooms LA, Degryse AD, Janssen PA. Mechanisms of action of loperamide. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1984;96:145–155.
  • Noor A, Pellegrini MV Antifungal, membrane function inhibitors (Amphotericin B). In: InStatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2019. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482327/
  • Saef MA, Saadabadi A Protriptyline. In: InStatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2019. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499828/
  • Din L, Preuss CV Prochlorperazine. In: InStatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2019. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537083/
  • Loose DS, Kan PB, Hirst MA, et al. Ketoconazole blocks adrenal steroidogenesis by inhibiting cytochrome P450-dependent enzymes. J Clin Invest. 1983;71(5):1495–1499.
  • Wright P, Stern J, Phelan M. Core psychiatry. 3rd ed. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier; 2012. p. 680. ISBN: 9780702033971
  • Kresken M, Körber-Irrgang B. In vitro activity of nitroxoline against Escherichia coli urine isolates from outpatient departments in Germany. Antimicrob Agent Chemother. 2014;58(11):7019–7020.
  • Goddette DW, Frieden C. Actin polymerization. The mechanism of action of cytochalasin D. J Biol Chem. 1986;261(34):15974–15980.
  • Varoni EM, Lo Faro AF, Sharifi-Rad J, et al. Anticancer molecular mechanisms of resveratrol. Front Nutri. 2016;3:8.
  • Vicens Q, Westhof E. Crystal structure of paromomycin docked into the eubacterial ribosomal decoding A site. Structure. 2001;9(8):647–658.
  • Schuster FL, Visvesvara GS. Axenic growth and drug sensitivity studies of Balamuthia mandrillaris, an agent of amebic meningoencephalitis in humans and other animals. J Clin Microbio. 1996;34(2):385–388.
  • Siddiqui R, Matin A, Warhurst D, et al. Effect of antimicrobial compounds on Balamuthia mandrillaris encystment and human brain microvascular endothelial cell cytopathogenicity. Antimicrob Agent Chemother. 2007;51(12):4471–4473.
  • Kalsoom H, Baig AM, Khan NA, et al. Laboratory testing of clinically approved drugs against Balamuthia mandrillaris. World J Microbiol Biotech. 2014;30(9):2337–2342.
  • Ahmad AF, Heaselgrave W, Andrew PW, et al. The in vitro efficacy of antimicrobial agents against the pathogenic free‐living amoeba Balamuthia mandrillaris. J Euk Microbiol. 2013;60(5):539–543.
  • Trimble MJ, Mlynárčik P, Kolář M, et al. Polymyxin: alternative mechanisms of action and resistance. Cold Spring Harbor Perspect Med. 2016;6(10):a025288.
  • Schuster FL, Guglielmo BJ, Visvesvara GS. In‐vitro activity of miltefosine and voriconazole on clinical isolates of free‐living amebas: Balamuthia mandrillaris, Acanthamoeba spp., and Naegleria fowleri. J Euk Microbiol. 2006;53(2):121–126.
  • Meshnick SR. Artemisinin: mechanisms of action, resistance and toxicity. Int J Parasitol. 2002;32(13):1655–1660.
  • Petreaca M, Martins-Green M The dynamics of cell-ECM interactions with implications for tissue engineering. In: Principles of tissue engineering. 4th ed. Academic Press; 2014. p. 161–187. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-398358-9.00009-4
  • Lam C, Jamerson M, Cabral G, et al. Expression of matrix metalloproteinases in Naegleria fowleri and their role in invasion of the central nervous system. Microbiol. 2017;163(10):1436–1444.
  • Singh R, Lillard JW Jr. Nanoparticle-based targeted drug delivery. Exp Mol Patho. 2009;86(3):215–223.
  • Aqeel Y, Siddiqui R, Anwar A, et al. Gold nanoparticle conjugation enhances the antiacanthamoebic effects of chlorhexidine. Antimicrob Agent Chemother. 2016;60(3):1283–1288.
  • Rajendran K, Anwar A, Khan NA, et al. Brain-eating amoebae: silver nanoparticle conjugation enhanced efficacy of anti-amoebic drugs against Naegleria fowleri. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2017;8(12):2626–2630.
  • Ghosh P, Han G, De M, et al. Gold nanoparticles in delivery applications. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2008;60(11):1307–1315.
  • Chen G, Qiu H, Prasad PN, et al. Upconversion nanoparticles: design, nanochemistry, and applications in theranostics. Chem Rev. 2014;114(10):5161–5214.
  • Anwar A, Siddiqui R, Khan NA. Importance of theranostics in rare brain-eating amoebae infections. ACS Chem Neurosci. 2018;10(1):6–12.
  • Bissonnette L, Bergeron MG. Next revolution in the molecular theranostics of infectious diseases: microfabricated systems for personalized medicine. Exp Rev Mol Diagn. 2006;6(3):433–450.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.