Promoting urban light rail transit in a compact city context: the case of Toyama City, Japan

REFERENCES

• Ababio-Donkor, A., Saleh, W., & Fonzone, A. (2020). The role of personal norms in the choice of mode for commuting. Research in Transportation Economics, 83, 100966.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Addie, J.-P. D., Glass, M. R., & Nelles, J. (2020). Regionalizing the infrastructure turn: A research agenda. Regional Studies, Regional Science, 7(1), 10–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/21681376.2019.1701543
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajzen, I. (2002). Perceived behavioral control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(4), 665–683. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb00236.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2005). The influence of attitudes on behavior. In D. Albarracín, B. T. Johnson, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The handbook of attitude (pp. 173–221). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Anable, J. (2005). ‘Complacent car addicts’ or ‘aspiring environmentalists’? identifying travel behavior segments using attitude theory. Transport Policy, 12(1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2004.11.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arai, Y., Levine, D., Mikimoto, H., & Yamazaki, M. (2020). The development story of Toyama: Reshaping compact and livable cities. World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Arroyo, R., Ruiz, T., Mars, L., Rasouli, S., & Timmermans, H. (2020). Influence of values, attitudes towards transport modes and companions on travel behavior. Transportation Research Part F, 71, 8–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2020.04.002
   Google Scholar
• Bamberg, S. (2006). Is a residential relocation a good opportunity to change people’s travel behavior? Results from a theory-driven intervention study. Environment and Behavior, 38(6), 820–840. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916505285091
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bamberg, S., Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2003). Choice of travel mode in the theory of planned behavior: The role of past behavior, habit, and reasoned action. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 25(3), 175–187. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324834BASP2503_01
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bamberg, S., Fujii, S., Friman, M., & Gärling, T. (2011). Behavior theory and soft transport policy measures. Transport Policy, 18(1), 228–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2010.08.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bamberg, S., Hunecke, M., & Blöbaum, A. (2007). Social context, personal norm and the use of public transportation: Two field studies. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 27(3), 190–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2007.04.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basu, R., & Ferreira, J. (2021). Sustainable mobility in auto-dominated metro Boston: Challenges and opportunities post-COVID-19. Transport Policy, 103, 197–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2021.01.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck, M. J., & Rose, J. M. (2016). The best of times and the worst of times: A new best-worst measure of attitudes toward public transport experiences. Transportation Research Part A, 86, 108–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2016.02.002
   Google Scholar
• Beirão, G., & Cabral, J. A. S. (2007). Understanding attitudes towards public transport and private car: A qualitative study. Transport Policy, 14(6), 478–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2007.04.009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhattacharjee, S., & Goetz, A. R. (2012). Impact of light rail on traffic congestion in Denver. Journal of Transport Geography, 22, 262–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.01.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bickerstaff, K., & Walker, G. (2002). Risk, responsibility, and blame: An analysis of vocabularies of motive in air-pollution(ing) discourses. Environment and Planning A, 34(12), 2175–2192. https://doi.org/10.1068/a3521
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne, B. (2011). Structural equation modelling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Carpintero, S., & Siemiatycki, M. 2016 The politics of delivering light rail transit projects through public–private partnerships in Spain: A case study approach. Transport Policy, 49, 159–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2016.05.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cats, O., Susilo, Y. O., & Reimal, T. (2017). The prospects of fare-free public transport: Evidence from Tallinn. Transportation, 44(5), 1083–1104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-016-9695-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cervero, R., & Sullian, C. (2011). Green TODs: Marrying transit-oriented development and green urbanism. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 18(3), 210–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504509.2011.570801
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chowdhury, S., & Ceder, A. (2016). Users’ willingness to ride an integrated public-transport choice. Transport Policy, 48, 183–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2016.03.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, B., Chatterjee, K., & Melia, S. (2016). Changes to commute mode: The role of life events, spatial context and environmental attitude. Transportation Research A, 89, 89–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2016.05.005
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, L., Manion, L, & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education (7th Ed). London and New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• de Oña, J., Estévez, E., & de Oña, R. (2021). Public transport users versus private vehicle users: Differences about quality of service, satisfaction and attitudes toward public transport in Madrid (Spain). Travel Behaviour and Society, 23, 76–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2020.11.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demarque, C., Charalambides, L., Hilton, D. J., & Waroquier, L. (2015). Nudging sustainable consumption: The use of descriptive norms to promote a minority behavior in a realistic online shopping environment. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 43, 166–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2015.06.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denant-Boèmont, L., & Mills, G. (1999). Urban light rail: Intermodal competition or coordination? Transport Reviews, 19(3), 241–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/014416499295510
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dieleman, F., & Wegener, M. (2004). Compact city and urban sprawl. Built Environment, 30(4), 308–323.
   Google Scholar
• Dijkstra, J. K., Lindenberg, S., & Veenstra, R. (2008). Beyond the class norm: Bullying behavior of popular adolescents and its relation to peer acceptance. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36(8), 1289–1299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9251-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donald, I., & Cooper, S. R. (2001). A facet approach to extending the normative component of the theory of reasoned action. British Journal of Social Psychology, 40(4), 599–621. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466601165000
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Donald, I., Cooper, S. R., & Conchie, S. M. (2014). An extended theory of planned behaviour model of the psychological factors affecting commuters’ transport mode use. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 40, 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2014.03.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dueker, K., & Bianco, M. (1999). Light-rail-transit impacts in Portland: The first ten years. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1685, 171–180.
   Google Scholar
• Egset, K. S., & Nordfjærn, T. (2019). The role of transport priorities, transport attitudes and situational factors for sustainable transport mode use in wintertime. Transportation Research F, 62, 473–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2019.02.003
   Google Scholar
• Eriksson, L., & Forward, S. E. (2011). Is the intention to travel in a pro-environmental manner and the intention to use the car determined by different factors? Transportation Research Part D, 16(5), 372–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2011.02.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forward, S. E. (2009). The theory of planned behavior: The role of descriptive norms and past behavior in the prediction of drivers’ intentions to violate. Transportation Research Part F, 12, 198–207
   Google Scholar
• Goldstein, N. J., Cialdini, R. B., & Griskevicius, V. (2008). A room with a view point: Using social norms to motivate environmental conservation in hotels. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(3), 472–482. https://doi.org/10.1086/586910
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham-Rowe, E., Skippon, S., Gardner, B., & Abraham, C. (2011). Can we reduce car use and, if so, how? A review of available evidence. Transportation Research A, 45(5), 401–418.
   Google Scholar
• Haustein, S. (2012). Mobility behavior of the elderly: An attitude-based segmentation approach for a heterogeneous target group. Transportation, 39(6), 1079–1103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-011-9380-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heath, Y., & Gifford, R. (2002). Extending the theory of planned behavior: Predicting the use of public transportation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(10), 2154–2189. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2002.tb02068.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hurst, N. B., & West, S. E. (2014). Public transit and urban redevelopment: The effect of light rail transit on land use in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 46, 57–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2014.02.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ibraeva, A., & de Sousa, J. F. (2014). Marketing of public transport and public transport information provision. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 162, 121–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.192
   Google Scholar
• Ito, H., & Kawazoe, N. (2022). Promoting transportation policies in the context of compact city strategies: The case of Toyama City, Japan. Annals of Regional Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168-022-01185-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaroszynski, M. A., & Brown, J. R. (2014). Do light rail transit planning decisions affect metropolitan transit performance? Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2419(1), 50–62. https://doi.org/10.3141/2419-06
   Google Scholar
• Kormos, C., Gifford, R., & Brown, E. (2015). The influence of descriptive social norm information on sustainable transportation behavior: A field experiment. Environment and Behavior, 47(5), 479–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916513520416
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• le Clercq, F., & de Vries, J. S. (2000). Public transport and the compact city. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1735(1), 3–9. https://doi.org/10.3141/1735-01
   Google Scholar
• Levinson, H. S., Allen, J. G., & Hoey, W. F. (2012). Light rail since world War II: Abandonments, survival, and revivals. Journal of Urban Technology, 19(1), 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/10630732.2011.649911
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis, P. G. (2014). Moral institutions and smart growth: Why do liberals and conservatives view compact development so differently? Journal of Urban Affairs, 37(2), 87–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/juaf.12172
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin, T., Wang, D., & Guan, X. (2017). The built environment, travel attitude, and travel behavior: Residential self-selection or residential determination? Journal of Transportation Geography, 65, 111–122.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long, B., Choocharukul, K., & Nakatsuji, T. (2011). Psychological factors influencing behavioral intention toward future sky train usage in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2217(1), 63–70. https://doi.org/10.3141/2217-08
   Google Scholar
• Mahieux, A., & Mejia-Dorantes, L. (2017). Regeneration strategies and transport improvement in a deprived area: What can be learned from northern France? Regional Studies, 51(5), 800–813. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2016.1177174
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manstead, A. S. R. (2011). The benefits of a critical stance: A reflection on past papers on the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior. British Journal of Social Psychology, 50(3), 366–373. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.2011.02043.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mouratidis, K. (2018). Is compact city livable? The impact of compact versus sprawled neighbourhoods on neighbourhood satisfaction. Urban Studies, 55(11), 2408–2430. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098017729109
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muro, T. (2009). Compact city development using public transport. Japan Railway & Transport Review, 52, 24–31.
   Google Scholar
• Novales, M., & Conles, E. (2012). Turf track for light rail systems. Transportation Research Record: Journal of Transportation Research Board, 2275(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3141/2275-01
   Google Scholar
• O’Sullivan, S., & Morrall, J. (1996). Walking distances to and from light-rail transit stations. Transportation Research Record, 1538(1), 19–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198196153800103
   Google Scholar
• Priemus, H., & Konings, R. (2001). Light rail in urban regions: What Dutch policy makers could learn from experience in France, Germany and Japan. Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3), 187–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0966-6923(01)00008-4
   Google Scholar
• Rex, J., Lobo, A., & Leckie, C. (2015). Evaluating the drivers of sustainable behavior intentions: An application and extension of the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 27(3), 263–284. https://doi.org/10.1080/10495142.2015.1053342
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rivis, A., & Sheeran, P. (2003). Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the theory of planned behavior: A meta-analysis. Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social Psychology, 22(3), 218–233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-003-1018-2
   Google Scholar
• Sakamoto, K., Iida, A., & Yokohari, M. (2018). Spatial patterns of population turnover in a Japanese regional city for urban regeneration against population decline: Is compact city policy effective. City, 81, 230–241. https://doi.org/10.14398/urpr.4.111
   Google Scholar
• Scherer, M. (2010). Is light rail more attractive to users than bus transit: Arguments based on cognition and rational choice. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2144(1), 11–19. https://doi.org/10.3141/2144-02
   Google Scholar
• Shi, H., Fan, J., & Zhao, D. (2017). Predicting household PM2.5-reduction behavior in Chinese urban areas: An integrative model of theory of planned behavior and norm activation theory. Journal of Cleaner Production, 145, 64–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.169
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shigetou, S. (2020). Konpakuto na machidukuri to ekosisutemu no kouchiku [Compact city development and ecosystem construction]. In The Graduate School of Project Design Publishing (Ed.), Toyamashi jigyoukousou kenkyuukai: toyama-gata konpakuto shiti no kousouto jissen [Toyama City project operation study group: The concept and practice of Toyama-style compact city) (pp. 18–29). Sentan Kyouiku Syuppan.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, J. R., Louis, W. R., Terry, D. J., Greenaway, K. H., Clarke, M. R., & Cheng, X. (2012). Congruent or conflicted? The impact of injunctive and descriptive norms on environmental intentions. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 32(4), 353–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2012.06.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steg, L. (2003). Can public transport compete with the private car? IATSS Research, 27(2), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0386-1112(14)60141-2
   Google Scholar
• Steg, L., Geurs, K., & Ras, M. (2001). The effects of motivational factors on car use: A multidisciplinary modelling approach. Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice, 35(9), 789–806. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0965-8564(00)00017-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steg, L., & Vlek, C. (1997). The role of problem awareness in willingness-to-change car use and in evaluating relevant policy measures. In J. A. Rothengatter, & V. E. Carbonell (Eds.), Traffic and transport psychology (pp. 465–475). Pergamon.
   Google Scholar
• Taube, O., Kibbe, A., Adler, M., & Kaiser, F. G. (2018). Applying the Campbell Paradigm to sustainable travel behavior: Compensatory effects of environmental attitude and the transportation environment. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 56, 392–407.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, G. L. (2007). Taming the neighborhood revolution: Planners, power brokers, and the birth of neotraditionalism in Portland, Oregon. Journal of Planning History, 6(3), 214–247. https://doi.org/10.1177/1538513206297457
   Google Scholar
• Thøgersen, J. (2009). Promoting public transport as a subscription service: Effects of a free month travel card. Transport Policy, 16(6), 335–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2009.10.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thøgersen, J. (2014). Social marketing in travel demand management. In T. Gärling (Ed.), Handbook of sustainable (pp. 113–129). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Topalovic, P., Carter, J., Topalovic, M., & Krantzberg, G. (2012). Light rail transit in Hamilton: Health, environmental and economic impact analysis. Social Indicators Research, 108(2), 329–350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-012-0069-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toyama City. (2009). Konpakuto shithi senryaku niyoru Co2 sakugen keikaku (The CO2 reduction plan by the Toyama Compact City Strategy). <http://www.tkz.or.jp/econowa/detail.php?id=100025#./_upload/100025/kankyou_pic1.jpg.
   Google Scholar
• Toyama City. (2017). Dainiji Toyama-shi kankyoumiraitoshi keikaku (The second Toyama City’s action plans toward a future model city). http://www.city.toyama.toyama.jp/data/open/cnt/3/9930/1/dai2ji_kankyoumiraitoshikeikaku_honntai.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Toyama City. (2021). Toyama-shi no jinkou (Toyama City’s population). https://www.city.toyama.toyama.jp/kikakukanribu/johotokeika/tokei/jinkosetai/R2/shinojinko2001.html.
   Google Scholar
• Urbanek, A. (2021). Fare-free public transport versus private cars: Zero fares as an instrument of impact on public transport mode share? Springer proceedings in business and economics. In M. Suchanek (Ed.), Transport development challenges in the 21st century (pp. 215–225). Germany.
   Google Scholar
• Vigrass, J. W., & Smith, A. K. (2005). Light rail in Britain and France: Study in contrasts, with some similarities. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Record, 1930(1), 79–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198105193000110
   Google Scholar
• Waddell, L. P., & Wiener, K. K. K. (2014). What’s driving illegal mobile phone use? Psychosocial influences on drivers’ intentions to use hand-held mobile phones. Transport Research Part F, 22, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2013.10.008
   Google Scholar
• Wall, R., Devine-Wright, P., & Mill, G. A. (2007). Comparing and combining theories to explain proenvironmental intentions: The case of commuting-mode choice. Environment and Behavior, 39(6), 731–753. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916506294594
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wall, R., Devine-Wright, P., & Mill, G. A. (2008). Interactions between perceived behavioral control and personal-normative motives. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 2(1), 63–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689807309967
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright, C., & Egan, J. (2000). De-marketing the car. Transport Policy, 7(4), 287–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-070X(00)00029-9
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, D., Schmocker, J.-D., Fujii, S., & Yang, X. (2016). Social norms and public transport usage: Empirical study from Shanghai. Transportation, 43, 869–888.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar