Super emitters in the United States coal-fired electric utility industry: comparing disproportionate emissions across facilities and parent companies

References

• Armstrong, A., R. C. Stedman, J. A. Bishop, and P. J. Sullivan. 2012. “What’s a Stream without Water? Disproportionality in Headwater Regions Impacting Water Quality.” Environmental Management 50 (5): 849–860. doi:10.1007/s00267-012-9928-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ash, M., and J. K. Boyce. 2011. “Measuring Corporate Environmental Justice Performance.” Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management 18 (2): 61–79. doi:10.1002/csr.238.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry, L. 2007. “Inequality in the Creation of Environmental Harm: Looking for Answers from Within.” In Equity and the Environment. Research in Social Problems and Public Policy, Vol. 15., eds. R. C. Wilkinson and W. R. Freudenburg, 239–265. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
   Google Scholar
• Boden, T. A., G. Marland, and R. Andres. 2015. "Global, Regional, and National Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions." Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory. http://cdiac.ess-dive.lbl.gov/trends/emis/.
   Google Scholar
• Boyce, J. K., and M. Pastor. 2013. “Clearing the Air: Incorporating Air Quality and Environmental Justice into Climate Policy.” Climatic Change 120 (4): 801–814. doi:10.1007/s10584-013-0832-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brulle, R. J., and D. N. Pellow. 2006. “Environmental Justice: Human Health and Environmental Inequalities.” Annual Review of Public Health 27: 103–124. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.27.021405.102124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bullard, R. D. 1990. Dumping in Dixie: Race, Class, and Environmental Quality. San Francisco, CA: Westview Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bullard, R. D., ed. 1993. Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots. Boston, MA: South End Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bullard, R. D. 1994. “Overcoming Racism in Environmental Decisionmaking.” Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development. doi:10.1080/00139157.1994.9929997.
   Google Scholar
• Cabot, P. E., and P. Nowak. 2005. “Planned versus Actual Outcomes as a Result of Animal Feeding Operation Decisions for Managing Phosphorus.” Journal of Environment Quality 34 (3): 761. doi:10.2134/jeq2002.0529.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, C2ES. 2018. “Regulating Power Sector Carbon Emissions.” Policy Hub - US Federal. https://www.c2es.org/content/regulating-power-sector-carbon-emissions/.
   Google Scholar
• Center for Public Integrity. 2016. “America’s Super Polluters.” Climate Wars. https://www.publicintegrity.org/2016/09/29/20271/here-are-super-polluters.
   Google Scholar
• Collins, M. B. 2011. “Risk-Based Targeting: Identifying Disproportionalities in the Sources and Effects of Industrial Pollution.” American Journal of Public Health 101:S231–7. Suppl. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2011.300120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, M. B., I. Munoz, and J. Joseph. 2016. “Linking ‘Toxic Outliers’ to Environmental Justice Communities.” Environmental Research Letters 11 (1): IOP Publishing. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/1/015004.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cushing, L. J., M. Wander, R. Morello-Frosch, M. Pastor, A. Zhu, and J. Sadd. 2016. A Preliminary Environmental Equity Assessment of California’s Cap-and-Trade Program. September. Los Angeles, California: Program for Environmental and Regional Equity (PERE), University of Southern California.
   Google Scholar
• Dorfman, R. 1979. “A Formula for the Gini Coefficient.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 61 (1): 146–149. doi:10.2307/1924845.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Downey, L. 1998. “Environmental Injustice: Is Race or Income a Better Predictor?” Social Science Quarterly 79: 766–778.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EIA. 2016a. “EIA Electricity Generator Data Show Power Industry Response to EPA Mercury Limits.” United States Energy Information Administration. http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=26972.
   Google Scholar
• Energy Information Administration. 2014. “Rankings: Total Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 2014 (Million Metric Tons).” United States Energy Information Administration. http://www.eia.gov/state/rankings/?sid=OH#series/226.
   Google Scholar
• Freudenburg, W. R. 2006. “Environmental Degradation, Disproportionality, and the Double Diversion: Reaching Out, Reaching Ahead, and Reaching Beyond.” Rural Sociology 71 (1): 3–32. doi:10.1526/003601106777789792.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freudenburg, W. R., R. Gramling, S. Laska, and K. T. Erikson. 2009. “Disproportionality and Disaster : Hurricane Katrina and the Mississippi River-Gulf Outlet N.” Social Science Quarterly 90 (3): 497–515. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00628.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freudenburg, W. R. 2005. “Privileged Access, Privileged Accounts: Toward a Socially Structured Theory of Resources and Discourses.” Social Forces 84 (1): 89–114. doi:10.1353/sof.2005.0096.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant, D., A. Jorgenson, and W. Longhofer. 2013. “Targeting Electricity’s Extreme Polluters to Reduce Energy-Related CO2 Emissions.” Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences 3 (4): 376–380. doi:10.1007/s13412-013-0142-z.
   Google Scholar
• Grant, D., I. I. Sherman, A. J. Bergesen, and A. W. Jones. 2002. “Organizational Size and Pollution: The Case of the U.S. Chemical Industry.” American Sociological Review 67 (3): 389. doi:10.2307/3088963.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant, D., M. N. Trautner, L. Downey, and L. Thiebaud. 2010a. “Bringing the Polluters Back In.” American Sociological Review 75 (4): 479–504. doi:10.1177/0003122410374822.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg, P. 2016. “Disproportionality and Resource-Based Environmental Inequality: An Analysis of Neighborhood Proximity to Coal Impoundments in Appalachia.” Rural Sociology 82 (1): 149–178. doi:10.1111/ruso.12119.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffin, P. 2017. “The Carbon Majors Database CDP Carbon Majors Report 2017.”
   Google Scholar
• International Energy Agency. 2016. “World Energy Outlook 2016.”http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/pub l i c a t i o n / W E B _ W o r l d E n e r g y O u t l o o k 2 0 1 5 ExecutiveSummaryEnglishFinal.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Jorgenson, A., W. Longhofer, and D. Grant. 2016. “Disproportionality in Power Plants’ Carbon Emissions: A Cross-National Study.” Scientific Reports 6 (1): Nature Publishing Group: 28661. doi:10.1038/srep28661.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jorgenson, A. K., W. Longhofer, D. Grant, A. Sie, and V. Giedraitis. 2017. “The Effects of Economic and Political Integration on Power Plants ’ Carbon Emissions in the Post-Soviet Transition Nations.” Environmental Research Letters 44009: 12. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aa650b.
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy, E. H., H. Krahn, and N. T. Krogman. 2014. “Egregious Emitters: Disproportionality in Household Carbon Footprints.” Environment and Behavior 46 (5): 535–555. doi:10.1177/0013916512474986.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthews, T. L. 2011. “The Enduring Conflict of ‘Jobs versus the Environment’: Local Pollution as an Integrative Empirical Measure of Economy versus Environment.” Sociological Spectrum 31: 59–85. doi:10.1080/02732173.2011.525696.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mele, C. 2016. “Using’ race in the politics of siting environmentally hazardous facilities.” Environmental Sociology 2 (2): 166–179. doi:10.1080/23251042.2016.1163962.
   Google Scholar
• Mohai, P., and B. Bryant, eds. 1992. Race and the Incidence of Environmental Hazards. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mohai, P., and R. Saha. 2007. “Racial Inequality in the Distribution of Hazardous Waste: A National-Level Reassessment.” Social Problems 54 (3): 343–370. doi:10.1525/sp.2007.54.3.343.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohai, P., and R. Saha. 2015. “Which Came First, People or Pollution? A Review of Theory and Evidence from Longitudinal Environmental Justice Studies.” Environmental Research Letters 10 (12): IOP Publishing: 125011. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/10/12/125011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nowak, P., S. Bowen, and P. E. Cabot. 2006. “Disproportionality as a Framework for Linking Social and Biophysical Systems.” Society & Natural Resources 19 (2): 153–173. doi:10.1080/08941920500394816.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pellow, D. N., and H. N. Brehm. 2013. “An Environmental Sociology for the Twenty-First Century.” Annual Review of Sociology 39 (1): 229–250. doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145558.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prechel, H., and A. Istvan. 2016. “Disproportionality of Corporations Environmental Pollution in the Electrical Energy Industry.” Sociological Perspectives 59 (3): 505–527. doi:10.1177/0731121416629991.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prechel, H. 2015. “Organizational Political Economy and Environmental Pollution.” Sociology Compass 9 (9): 828–840. doi:10.1111/soc4.12299.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prechel, H., and G. Touche. 2014. “The Effects of Organizational Characteristics and State Environmental Policies on Sulfur-Dioxide Pollution in U.S. Electrical Energy Corporations.” Social Science Quarterly 95 (1): 76–96. doi:10.1111/ssqu.12052.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prechel, H., and L. Zheng. 2012. “Corporate Characteristics, Political Embeddedness and Environmental Pollution by Large U.S. Corporations.” Social Forces 90 (3): 947–970. doi:10.1093/sf/sor026.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Political Economy Research Institute. 2017. “Toxic 100.” In University of Massachusetts Amhert.
   Google Scholar
• Sze, J., and J. K. London. 2008. “Environmental Justice at the Crossroads.” Sociology Compass 2 (4): 1331–1354. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00131.x.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, D. E. 2000. “The Rise of the Environmental Justice Paradigm.” American Behavioral Scientist 43 (4): 508–580.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1970. “Clean Air Act of 1970/1977.” United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/history/epa-history-clean-air-act-19701977.
   Google Scholar
• United States Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. “Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990.” United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/history/epa-history-clean-air-act-amendments-1990. doi: 10.1099/00221287-136-2-327
   Google Scholar
• United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2014. Carbon Pollution Emission Guidelines for Existing Stationary Sources: Electric Utility Generating Units.
   Google Scholar
• United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2016. “Fast Facts from the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks 1990–2014." https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/fast-facts-inventory-us-greenhouse-gas-emissions-and-sinks-1990-2014
   Google Scholar
• United States Energy Information Administration. 2016b. “How Much of U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions are Associated with Electricity Generation?” United States Energy Information Administration. http://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=77&t=11.
   Google Scholar
• United States Energy Information Administration. 2017. “How Is the Fuel Mix for U.S. Electricity Generation Changing?” United States Energy Information Administration. https://www.eia.gov/energy_in_brief/article/fuel_mix_for_elect_generation.cfm.
   Google Scholar