Natural gas – friend or foe of the environment? Evaluating the framing contest over natural gas through a public opinion survey in the Pacific Northwest

References

• Ansolabehere, S., and D. M. Konisky. 2009. “Public Attitudes toward Construction of New Power Plants.” Public Opinion Quarterly 73 (3): 566–577. doi:10.1093/poq/nfp041.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ansolabehere, S., and D. M. Konisky. 2012. “The American Public’s Energy Choice.” Daedalus 141 (2): 61–71. doi:10.1162/DAED_a_00146.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benford, R. D., and D. A. Snow. 2000. “Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment.” Annual Review of Sociology 26 (1): 611–639. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.611.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berg, J. C. 2019. “Leave It in the Ground: The Politics of Coal and Climate:.” Praeger. https://www.amazon.com/Leave-Ground-Politics-Coal-Climate/dp/144083914X
   Google Scholar
• Borick, C. P., and C. Clarke. 2016. “American Views on Fracking.” SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 2781503. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2781503
   Google Scholar
• Boudet, H., T. Trang, and B. Gaustad. 2017. “The Long Shadow of Unconventional Hydrocarbon Development: Contentious Politics in Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Facility Siting in Oregon.” In Fractured Communities: Risks, Impact, and Protest against Hydraulic Fracking in U.S. Shale Regions. E, edited by A. E. Ladd. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Boudet, H., B.Gaustad, and T. Tran. 2018. “Public Participation and Protest in the Siting of Liquified Natural Gas Terminals in Oregon.” In Fractured Communities: Risk, Impacts, and Protest against Hydraulic Fracking in U.S. Shale Regions, edited by A. E. Ladd. 248-270. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Boudet, H., C. Clarke, D. Bugden, E. Maibach, C. Roser-Renouf, and A. Leiserowitz. 2014. “‘Fracking’ Controversy and Communication: Using National Survey Data to Understand Public Perceptions of Hydraulic Fracturing.” Energy Policy 65 (February): 57–67. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.10.017.
   Google Scholar
• Boudet, H., D. Bugden, C. Zanocco, and E. Maibach. 2016. “The Effect of Industry Activities on Public Support for ‘Fracking.’.” Environmental Politics 25 (4): 593–612. doi:10.1080/09644016.2016.1153771.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boudet, H. S. 2019. “Public Perceptions of and Responses to New Energy Technologies.” Nature Energy 4 (6): 446–455. doi:10.1038/s41560-019-0399-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boudet, H. S., C. M. Zanocco, P. D. Howe, and C. E. Clarke. 2018. “The Effect of Geographic Proximity to Unconventional Oil and Gas Development on Public Support for Hydraulic Fracturing.” Risk Analysis 38 (9): 1871–1890. doi:10.1111/risa.12989.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brant, R. 1990. “Assessing Proportionality in the Proportional Odds Model for Ordinal Logistic Regression.” Biometrics 46 (4): 1171–1178. doi:10.2307/2532457.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brulle, R. J., J. Carmichael, and J. Craig Jenkins. 2012. “Shifting Public Opinion on Climate Change: An Empirical Assessment of Factors Influencing Concern over Climate Change in the U.S., 2002–2010.” Climatic Change 114 (2): 169–188. doi:10.1007/s10584-012-0403-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunner, T., and J. Axsen. 2020. “Oil Sands, Pipelines and Fracking: Citizen Acceptance of Unconventional Fossil Fuel Development and Infrastructure in Canada.” Energy Research & Social Science 67 (September): 101511. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101511.
   Google Scholar
• Burney, J. A. 2020. “The Downstream Air Pollution Impacts of the Transition from Coal to Natural Gas in the United States.” Nature Sustainability January (1–9). doi:10.1038/s41893-019-0453-5.
   Google Scholar
• Carter, A. V., and M. Janetta. 2020. “Amplifying ‘Keep It in the Ground’ First-Movers: Toward a Comparative Framework.” Society & Natural Resources 33 (11): 1339–1358. doi:10.1080/08941920.2020.1772924.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casselman, B. 2009. “Sierra Club’s Pro-Gas Dilemma.” Wall Street Journal, 22 December 2009, sec. Business. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB126135534799299475
   Google Scholar
• Christenson, D. P., J. L. Goldfarb, and D. L. Kriner. 2017. “Costs, Benefits, and the Malleability of Public Support for ‘Fracking.” Energy Policy 105 (June): 407–417. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2017.03.002.
   Google Scholar
• Clark, L., and C. Anchondo. 2020. “Would Biden Make Gas the Next Coal?” EE News, 2020. https://www.eenews.net/stories/1063717397
   Google Scholar
• Clarke, C. E., D. Budgen, D. T. N. Evensen, R. C. Stedman, H. S. Boudet, and J. B. Jacquet. 2019.“Communicating about Climate Change, Natural Gas Development, and ‘Fracking’: U.S. And International Perspectives.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science April. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.443.
   Google Scholar
• Clarke, C. E., D. Bugden, P. S. Hart, R. C. Stedman, J. B. Jacquet, D. T. N. Evensen, and H. S. Boudet. 2016. “How Geographic Distance and Political Ideology Interact to Influence Public Perception of Unconventional Oil/Natural Gas Development.” Energy Policy 97 (October): 301–309. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2016.07.032.
   Google Scholar
• Clarke, C. E., and D. T. N. Evensen. 2019. “The Politics of Scientific Consensus? Political Divergence and Partisanship in Unconventional Energy Development in the United States.” Energy Research & Social Science 51 (May): 156–167. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2019.01.005.
   Google Scholar
• Clarke, C. E., P. S. Hart, J. P. Schuldt, D. T. N. Evensen, H. S. Boudet, J. B. Jacquet, and R. C. Stedman. 2015. “Public Opinion on Energy Development: The Interplay of Issue Framing, Top-of-Mind Associations, and Political Ideology.” Energy Policy 81 (June): 131–140. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2015.02.019.
   Google Scholar
• Cockrell, D. 2019. “Local Groups Express Disappointment in LNG Decision; Plans for Appeal are in Works.” The News Tribune. 2019. https://www.thenewstribune.com/news/business/article238274638.html
   Google Scholar
• Commoner, B. 1979. The Politics of Energy. 1st ed.New York: Random House.
   Google Scholar
• Davis, C., and J. M. Fisk. 2014. “Energy Abundance or Environmental Worries? Analyzing Public Support for Fracking in the United States.” Review of Policy Research 31 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1111/ropr.12048.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delborne, J. A., D. Hasala, A. Wigner, and A. Kinchy. 2020. “Dueling Metaphors, Fueling Futures: ‘Bridge Fuel’ Visions of Coal and Natural Gas in the United States.” Energy Research & Social Science 61 (March): 101350. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2019.101350.
   Google Scholar
• DiChristopher, T. 2017. “Trump Wants America to Be ‘Energy Dominant.’ Here’s What that Means,” 1 July 2017. https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/28/trump-america-energy-dominant-policy.html
   Google Scholar
• DiChristopher, T. 2020. “Gas Ban Backers Set Their Sights on Illinois Building Electrification.” S&P Global, 2020. https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/gas-ban-backers-set-their-sights-on-illinois-building-electrification-60224263
   Google Scholar
• Erickson, P., M. Lazarus, and G. Piggot. 2018. “Limiting Fossil Fuel Production as the Next Big Step in Climate Policy.” Nature Climate Change 8 (12): 1037–1043. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0337-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evensen, D., and B. Brown-Steiner. 2018. “Public Perception of the Relationship between Climate Change and Unconventional Gas Development (‘fracking’) in the US.” Climate Policy 18 (5): 556–567. doi:10.1080/14693062.2017.1389686.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, J. 2013. “Fracked Gas Isn’t a Bridge Fuel—It’s a Gangplank | Common Dreams Views.” Common Dreams, 2013. https://www.commondreams.org/views/2013/06/26/fracked-gas-isnt-bridge-fuel-its-gangplank
   Google Scholar
• Funk, C., A. Tyson, B. Kennedy, and C. Johnson. 2020. “Natural Gas Viewed More Positively than Other Fossil Fuels across 20 Global Publics.” Pew Research Center (blog). 2020. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/10/19/natural-gas-viewed-more-positively-than-other-fossil-fuels-across-20-global-publics
   Google Scholar
• Gamson, W. 2004. “Bystanders, Public Opinion, and the Media.” In The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule, and H. Kriesi, 242–261.MA: John Wiley & Sons, . doi:10.1002/9780470999103.ch17.
   Google Scholar
• Gardner, L. 2019. “Canada Decides: Trudeau’s Oil and Gas Balancing Act.” POLITICO, 2019. https://politi.co/30oHzIq
   Google Scholar
• Gravelle, T. B., and E. Lachapelle. 2015. “Politics, Proximity and the Pipeline: Mapping Public Attitudes toward Keystone XL.” Energy Policy 83 (August): 99–108. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2015.04.004.
   Google Scholar
• Hausfather, Z. 2015. “Bounding the Climate Viability of Natural Gas as a Bridge Fuel to Displace Coal.” Energy Policy 86 (November): 286–294. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2015.07.012.
   Google Scholar
• Hausfather, Z. 2016. “Is Natural Gas a Bridge Fuel? » Yale Climate Connections.” Yale Climate Connections (blog). 2016. https://www.yaleclimateconnections.org/2016/08/is-natural-gas-a-bridge-fuel
   Google Scholar
• Hazboun, S. O. 2019. “A Left Coast ‘Thin Green Line’? Determinants of Public Attitudes toward Fossil Fuel Export in the Northwestern United States.” The Extractive Industries and Society 6 (4): 1340–1349. doi:10.1016/j.exis.2019.10.009.
   Google Scholar
• Hazboun, S. O., and H. Boudet. 2018. “Companies Blocked from Using West Coast Ports to Export Fossil Fuels Keep Seeking Workarounds.” The Conversation, 2018. http://theconversation.com/companies-blocked-from-using-west-coast-ports-to-export-fossil-fuels-keep-seeking-workarounds-106300
   Google Scholar
• Hazboun, S. O., and H. S. Boudet. 2020. “Public Preferences in a Shifting Energy Future: Comparing Public Views of Eight Energy Sources in North America’s Pacific Northwest.” Energies 13 (8): 1940. doi:10.3390/en13081940.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howarth, R. W. 2014. “A Bridge to Nowhere: Methane Emissions and the Greenhouse Gas Footprint of Natural Gas.” Energy Science & Engineering 2 (2): 47–60. doi:10.1002/ese3.35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howarth, R. W., R. Santoro, and A. Ingraffea. 2011. “Methane and the Greenhouse-Gas Footprint of Natural Gas from Shale Formations.” Climatic Change 106 (4): 679. doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0061-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes, J. D. 2018. “Canada’s Energy Outlook: Current Realities and Implications for a Carbon-Constrained Future.” https://www.policyalternatives.ca/energy-outlook
   Google Scholar
• Ingraffea, A. 2013. “Opinion | Gangplank to a Warm Future - the New York Times.” 2013. https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/29/opinion/gangplank-to-a-warm-future.html
   Google Scholar
• Kennedy Jr., Robert. 2009. “How to End America’s Deadly Coal Addition.” Financial Times, 2009. https://www.ft.com/content/58ec3258-748b-11de-8ad5-00144feabdc0#axzz1qaQSM4kw
   Google Scholar
• Koopmans, R., and P. Statham. 1999. “Ethnic Ond Civic Conceptions of Nationhood and the Differential Success of the Extreme Right in Germany and Italy.” In How Social Movements Matter, edited by M. Giugni, D. McAdam, and C. Tilly, 225, University of  MN: Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Koopmans, R., and S. Olzak. 2004. “Discursive Opportunities and the Evolution of Right‐Wing Violence in Germany.” American Journal of Sociology 110 (1): 198–230. doi:10.1086/386271.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreuze, A., C. Schelly, and E. Norman. 2016. “To Frack or Not to Frack: Perceptions of the Risks and Opportunities of High-Volume Hydraulic Fracturing in the United States.” Energy Research & Social Science, Risks, the Social Sciences, and Unconventional Hydrocarbons 20 (October): 45–54. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2016.05.010.
   Google Scholar
• Lacroix, K., M. Goldberg, A. Gustafson, S. Rosenthal, and A. Leiserowitz. 2020. “Should It Be Called ‘Natural Gas’ or ‘Methane’?” Yale Program on Climate Change Communication (blog). 1 December 2020. https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/publications/should-it-be-called-natural-gas-or-methane
   Google Scholar
• Ladd, A. E. 2014. “Environmental Disputes and Opportunity-Threat Impacts Surrounding Natural Gas Fracking in Louisiana.” Social Currents 1 (3): 293–311. doi:10.1177/2329496514540132.
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus, M., and H. Van Asselt. 2018. “Fossil Fuel Supply and Climate Policy: Exploring the Road Less Taken.” Climatic Change 150 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1007/s10584-018-2266-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leber, R. 2021. “Gaslit: How the Fossil Fuel Industry Convinced Americans to Love Gas Stoves.” Mother Jones, 2021. https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2021/02/how-the-fossil-fuel-industry-convinced-americans-to-love-gas-stoves
   Google Scholar
• Lee, J. 2020. “Coal’s Moment in the Sun, Courtesy of Natural Gas.” Wall Street Journal, 6 September 2020, sec. Markets. https://www.wsj.com/articles/coals-moment-in-the-sun-courtesy-of-natural-gas-11599400980
   Google Scholar
• Lee, M., and A. Clark. 2020. “Partisanship Does Not Tell the Full Story: The Complexities of Public Opinion and Fracking in the United States.” Energy Research & Social Science 70 (December): 101686. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101686.
   Google Scholar
• Leiserowitz, A. 2020. “Poll: Voters Support Transition to 100% Clean Economy.” 2020. https://mailchi.mp/yale/poll-voters-support-transition-to-100-clean-economy?e=4f68db22fe
   Google Scholar
• LINGO. 2019. “LINGO – Leave Fossil Fuels in the Ground.” 2019. http://leave-it-in-the-ground.org
   Google Scholar
• Mayer, A. 2016. “Risk and Benefits in a Fracking Boom: Evidence from Colorado.” The Extractive Industries and Society 3 (3): 744–753. doi:10.1016/j.exis.2016.04.006.
   Google Scholar
• Mayer, A. 2019. “National Energy Transition, Local Partisanship? Elite Cues, Community Identity, and Support for Clean Power in the United States.” Energy Research & Social Science 50 (April): 143–150. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2018.11.020.
   Google Scholar
• McFadden, D. 1973. “Conditional Logit Analysis of Qualitative Choice Behavior. “ in Frontiers in Econometrics, edited by P. Zarembka. 105-142. Cambridge: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mingle, J. 2020. “To Cut Carbon Emissions, a Movement Grows to ‘Electrify Everything.’” Yale E360. 2020. https://e360.yale.edu/features/to-cut-carbon-emissions-a-movement-grows-to-electrify-everything
   Google Scholar
• Miniard, D., J. Kantenbacher, and S. Z. Attari. 2020. “Shared Vision for a Decarbonized Future Energy System in the United States.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117 (13): 7108–7114. doi:10.1073/pnas.1920558117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Natural Resources Canada. 2020a. “Canadian LNG Projects.” 2020. https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/our-natural-resources/energy-sources-distribution/clean-fossil-fuels/natural-gas/canadian-lng-projects/5683
   Google Scholar
• Natural Resources Canada. 2020b. “Natural Gas.” 2020. https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/energy/energy-sources-distribution/natural-gas/5639
   Google Scholar
• O’Connor, C. D., and K. Fredericks. 2018. “Citizen Perceptions of Fracking: The Risks and Opportunities of Natural Gas Development in Canada.” Energy Research & Social Science 42 (August): 61–69. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2018.03.005.
   Google Scholar
• Paraskova, T. 2019. “IEA Chief: U.S. Emission Cuts The Largest In Energy History.” OilPrice.Com. 28 February 2019. https://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/IEA-Chief-US-Emission-Cuts-The-Largest-In-Energy-History.html
   Google Scholar
• Pierce, J. J., H. Boudet, C. Zanocco, and M. Hillyard. 2018. “Analyzing the Factors that Influence U.S. Public Support for Exporting Natural Gas.” Energy Policy 120 (September): 666–674. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.05.066.
   Google Scholar
• Piggot, G. 2018. “The Influence of Social Movements on Policies that Constrain Fossil Fuel Supply.” Climate Policy 18 (7): 942–954. doi:10.1080/14693062.2017.1394255.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piggot, G., C. Verkuijl, H. Van Asselt, and M. Lazarus. 2020. “Curbing Fossil Fuel Supply to Achieve Climate Goals.” Climate Policy 20 (8): 881–887. doi:10.1080/14693062.2020.1804315.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plec, E., and M. Pettenger. 2012. “Greenwashing Consumption: The Didactic Framing of ExxonMobil’s Energy Solutions.” Environmental Communication 6 (4): 459–476. doi:10.1080/17524032.2012.720270.
   Google Scholar
• Sheppard, K. 2012. “Natural Gas Puts Greens in Tough Spot.” Mother Jones (blog). 2012. https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2012/09/natural-gas-fracking-sierra-nrdc
   Google Scholar
• Sherren, K., J. R. Parkins, T. Owen, and M. Terashima. 2019. “Does Noticing Energy Infrastructure Influence Public Support for Energy Development? Evidence from a National Survey in Canada.” Energy Research & Social Science 51 (May): 176–186. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2019.01.014.
   Google Scholar
• Snow, D. A. 2004. “Framing Processes, Ideology, and Discursive Fields.” In The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule, and H. Kriesi, 380–412. MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, . doi:10.1002/9780470999103.ch17.
   Google Scholar
• Staddon, P. L., and M. H. Depledge. 2015. “Fracking Cannot Be Reconciled with Climate Change Mitigation Policies.” Environmental Science & Technology 49 (14): 8269–8270. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b02441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stedman, R. C., N. A. Connelly, T. A. Heberlein, D. J. Decker, and S. B. Allred. 2019. “The End of the (Research) World as We Know It? Understanding and Coping with Declining Response Rates to Mail Surveys.” Society & Natural Resources 32 (10): 1–16. doi:10.1080/08941920.2019.1587127.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephenson, E., A. Doukas, and K. Shaw. 2012. “‘Greenwashing Gas: Might a “Transition Fuel” Label Legitimize Carbon-Intensive Natural Gas Development?’.” Energy Policy 46 (July): 452–459. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2012.04.010.
   Google Scholar
• Stephenson, E., and K. Shaw. 2013. “¨ A Dilemma of Abundance: Governance Challenges of Reconciling Shale Gas Development and Climate Change Mitigation.” Sustainability 5 (5): 2210–2232. doi:10.3390/su5052210.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stoutenborough, J. W., L. Shi, and A. Vedlitz. 2015. “Probing Public Perceptions on Energy: Support for a Comparative, Deep-Probing Survey Design for Complex Issue Domains.” Energy 81 (March): 406–415. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2014.12.053.
   Google Scholar
• Thomas, M., N. Pidgeon, D. Evensen, T. Partridge, A. Hasell, C. Enders, B. Herr Harthorn, and M. Bradshaw. 2017. “Public Perceptions of Hydraulic Fracturing for Shale Gas and Oil in the United States and Canada.” Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews. Climate Change 8 (3). doi:10.1002/wcc.450.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tindall, D. B., M. C. J. Stoddart, and A. C. Howe. 2020. “Social Networks and Climate Change Policy Preferences: Structural Location and Policy Actor Support for Fossil Fuel Production.” Society & Natural Resources 33 (11): 1359–1379. doi:10.1080/08941920.2020.1783730.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tosun, J., and M. Mile. 2020. “Conferring Authority in the European Union: Citizens’ Policy Priorities for the European Energy Union.” Journal of European Integration 42 (1): 19–38. doi:10.1080/07036337.2019.1708338.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2019. “Where Our Natural Gas Comes From.” 2019. https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/natural-gas/where-our-natural-gas-comes-from.php
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Energy Information Administration. 2020. “Frequently Asked Questions - How Much Shale Gas Is Produced in the United States?” 2020. https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php
   Google Scholar
• Union of Concerned Scientists. 2015. “The Natural Gas Gamble.” Union of Concerned Scientists. https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/natural-gas-gamble
   Google Scholar
• Wang, Q., X. Chen, A. N. Jha, and H. Rogers. 2014. “Natural Gas from Shale Formation – The Evolution, Evidences and Challenges of Shale Gas Revolution in United States.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 30 (February): 1–28. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.065.
   Google Scholar
• Whitmarsh, L., N. Nash, P. Upham, A. Lloyd, J. P. Verdon, and J. Michael Kendall. 2015. “UK Public Perceptions of Shale Gas Hydraulic Fracturing: The Role of Audience, Message and Contextual Factors on Risk Perceptions and Policy Support.” Applied Energy 160 (December): 419–430. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.09.004.
   Google Scholar