The doubtful benefits of giving the benefit of the doubt: Lenient scoring of the spatial orientation items on the mini-Mental Status Exam increases false negative rates

References

• American Psychiatric Association (APA). (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
   Google Scholar
• Arevalo-Rodriguez, I., Smailagic, N., Roque, I., Figulis, M., Ciapponi, A., Sanchez-Perez E, … Cullum, S. (2015). Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) for the detection of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Chochrane Database Systems Review, 5 (3), CD010783.
   Google Scholar
• Braekhus, A., Laake, K., & Engedal, K. (1992). The Mini-Mental State Examination: Identifying the most efficient variables for detecting cognitive impairment in the elderly. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 40(11), 1139–1145. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1992.tb01804.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, L. R., Stricker, N. H., Libon, D. J., Delano-Wood, L., Salmon, D. P., Delis, D. C., & Bondi, M. W. (2012). Yes/No versus forced-choice recognition memory in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease: Patterns of impairment and associations with dementia severity. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 26 (7), 1201–1216. doi:10.1080/13854046.2012.728626
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Delis, D. C., Wetter, S. R., Jacobson, M. W., Peavy, G., Hamilton, J., Gongvatana, A., … Salmon, D. P. (2005). Recall discriminability: Utility of a new CVLT-II measure in the differential diagnosis of dementia. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11 (06), 708–715.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dong, Y. H., Lee, W. Y., Basri, N. A., Collinson, S. L., Merchant, R. A., Venketasubramanian, N., & Chen, C. L. (2012). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment is superior to the Mini-Mental State Examination in detecting patients at higher risk for dementia. International Psychogeriatrics, 24 (11), 1749–1755. doi:10.1017/S1041610212001068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdodi, L. A., Richard, D. C. S., & Hopwood, C. (2009). Scoring error variance in the WISC-IV Vocabulary subtest. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 27 (5), 374–385. doi:10.1177/0734282909332913
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). "Mini-Mental State" A Practical Method For Grading the Cognitive State of Patients for the Clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12, 189–198. doi:10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill, R., & Bäckman, L. (1995). The relationship between the mini-mental state examination and cognitive functioning in normal elderly adults: a componential analysis. Age and Ageing, 24 (5), 440–446. doi:10.1093/ageing/24.5.440
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilsabeck, R. C., Holdnack, J. A., Cullum, C. M., Drozdick, L. W., Edelstein, B., Fiske, A., … Wahlstrom, D. (2015). The Brief Cognitiv Status Examination (BCSE): Comparing diagnostic utility and equating scores to the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 30 (5), 458–467. doi:10.1093/arclin/acv037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jefferson, A. L., Cosentino, S. A., Ball, S. K., Bogdanoff, B., Leopold, N., Kaplan, E., & Libon, D. J. (2002). Errors produced on the mini-mental state examination and neuropsychological test performance in Alzheimer's disease, ischemic vascular dementia, and Parkinson's disease. ). The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 14 (3), 311–320. doi:10.1176/jnp.14.3.311
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jurica, P. J., Leitten, C. L., & Mattis, S. (2004). Dementia Rating Scale – 2. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Kent, K., Greenacre, M., Baker, S., & Erdodi, L. (2017). November). Lenient scoring of the spatial orientation items on the MMSE lowers sensitivity. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the College of Family Physicians of Canada, Montreal, QC.
   Google Scholar
• Kim, S. Y., Lim, T. S., Lee, H. Y., & Moon, S. Y. (2014). Clustering mild cognitive impairment by mini-mental state examination. Neurological Science, 35 (9), 1353–1358. doi:10.1007/s10072-014-1711-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGaugh, J. L. (1966). Time-dependent processes in memory storage. Science (New York, N.Y.), 153 (3742), 1351–1358. doi:10.1126/science.153.3742.1351
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell, A. J. (2009). A meta-analysis of the accuracy of the mini-mental state examination in the detection of dementia and mild cognitive impairment. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43 (4), 411–431. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.04.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mozley, C. G., Huxley, P., Sutcliffe, C., Bagley, H., Burns, A., Challis, D., & Cordingley, L. (1999). 'Not knowing where I am doesn't mean I don't know what I like': Cognitive Impairment and Quality of Life Responses in Elderly People. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 14 (9), 776–783. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199909)14:9<776::AID-GPS13>3.0.CO;2-C
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nasreddine, Z. S., Phillips, N. A., Bedirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Chertkow, H. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 53 (4), 695–699.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nilsson, F. (2007). Mini mental state examination (MMSE) – probably one of the most cited papers in health sciences. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 116 (2), 156–157. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01037.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory – Third Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• O’Bryant, S. E., Humphreys, J. D., Smith, G. E., Ivnik, R. J., Graff-Radford, N. R., Petersen, R. C., & Lucas, J. A. (2008). Detecting Dementia With the Mini-Mental State Examination in Highly Educated Individuals. Archives of Neurology, 65 (7), 963–967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultz-Larsen, K., Lomholt, R. K., & Kreiner, S. (2007). Mini-Mental Status Examination: A short form of MMSE was as accurate as the original MMSE in predicting dementia. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 60 (3), 260–267. doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2006.06.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon, C., & Schmitter-Edgecombe, M. (2016). The role of cognitive reserve and memort self-efficacy in compensatory strategy use: A structural equation approach. Journal of Clinical Experimental Neuropsychology, 38 (6), 685–699. doi:10.1080/13803395.2016.1150426
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tierney, M. C., Szalai, J. P., Dunn, E., Geslan, D., & McDowell, I. (2000). Prediction of Probable Alzheimer Disease in Patients With Symptoms Suggestive of Memory Impairment. Archives of Family Medicine, 9 (6), 527–532. doi:10.1001/archfami.9.6.527
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tombaugh, T., & McIntyre, N. (1992). The mini-mental state examination: a comprehensive review. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 40 (9), 922–935. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1992.tb01992.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechsler, D. (2009). Wechsler Memory Scale — Fourth Edition (WMS–IV). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Wells, J., Keyl, P., Chase, G., Aboraya, A., Folstein, M., & Anthony, J. (1992). Discriminant validity of a reduced set of Mini-Mental State Examination items for dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 86 (1), 23–31. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1992.tb03220.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar