22,918
Views
10
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

Influence of racial stereotypes on investigative decision-making in criminal investigations: A qualitative comparative analysis

ORCID Icon & | (Reviewing editor)
Article: 1538588 | Received 09 May 2018, Accepted 16 Oct 2018, Published online: 30 Oct 2018

References

  • Awan, I. (2012). “I am a Muslim not an extremist”: How the prevent strategy has constructed a “Suspect” Community. Politics & Policy, 40, 1158–1185. doi:10.1111/j.1747-1346.2012.00397.x
  • Badie, D. (2010). Groupthink, Iraq, and the War on Terror: Explaining US policy shift toward Iraq. Foreign Policy Analysis, 6(4), 277–296. doi:10.1111/j.1743-8594.2010.00113.x
  • Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (1995). Implicit gender stereotyping in judgments of fame. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 181-192.
  • Becker, H. (1998). Tricks of the trade. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
  • Blaine, B. E. (2012). Understanding the psychology of diversity. London: Sage.
  • Bowling, B., Parmar, A., & Phillips, C. (2008). Policing ethnic minority communities. In T. Newburn (Ed.), The Handbook of Policing (2nd ed., pp. 611–641). Cullompton: Willan.
  • Bowling, B., & Phillips, C. (2007). Disproportionate and discriminatory: Reviewing the evidence on police stop and search. The Modern Law Review, 70, 936–961. doi:10.1111/mlr.2007.70.issue-6
  • Bowling, B., Parmar, A., & Phillips, C. (2013). Policing ethnic minority communities. In T. Newburn (Ed.), The Handbook of Policing (pp. 611–641), 2nd edn, Cullompton: Willan.
  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. doi:10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
  • Breen-Smyth, M. (2014). Theorising the “suspect community”: Counterterrorism, security practices, and the public imagination. Critical Studies on Terrorism, 7, 223–240. doi:10.1080/17539153.2013.867714
  • Britt, D. W. (1997). A conceptual introduction to modelling: Quantitative and qualitative perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  • Casper, C., Rothermund, K., & Wentura, D. (2010). Automatic stereotype activation is context dependent. Social Psychology, 41(3), 131–136. doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000019
  • Chapman, L. J. (1967). Illusory correlation in observational report. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6, 151–155. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(67)80066-5
  • Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through qualitative research. London: SagePublications Ltd.
  • Clements, P. (2008). Policing a diverse society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Cloutier, J., Mason, M. F., & Macrae, C. N. (2005). The perceptual determinants of person construal: Reopening the social-cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(6), 885–894. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.6.885
  • Correll, J. et al. (2007). Across the thin blue line: Police officers and racial bias in the decision to shoot. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1006–1023, 10.1037. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1006
  • Coverdill, J. E., & Finlay, W. (1995). Understanding Mills via Mill-type methods: An application of qualitative comparative analysis to a study of labor management in southern textile manufacturing. Qualitative Sociology, 18(4), 457–478. doi:10.1007/BF02404491
  • Coverdill, J. E., Finlay, W., & Martin, J. K. (1994). Labor management in the southern textile industry comparing qualitative, quantitative, and qualitative comparative analyses. Sociological Methods & Research, 23(1), 54–85. doi:10.1177/0049124194023001003
  • Cress, D. M., & Snow, D. A. (2000). The outcomes of homeless mobilization: The influence of organization, disruption, political mediation, and framing. American Journal of Sociology, 105(4), 1063–1104. doi:10.1086/210399
  • Darley, J. M., & Gross, P. H. (1983). A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 20–33. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.20
  • Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5
  • Drass, K. A., & Miethe, T. D. (2001). Qualitative comparative analysis and the study of crime events. In R. F. Meier, L. W. Kennedy, & V. F. Sacco (Eds.), The process and structure of crime: Criminal events and crime analysis: Advances in criminological theory (pp. 125–140). New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
  • Drass, K. A., & Spencer, J. W. (1987). Accounting for pre-sentencing recommendations: Typologies and probation officers’ theory of office. Social Problems, 34(3), 277–293. doi:10.2307/800767
  • Fahsing, I., & Ask, K. (2013). Decision making and decisional tipping points in homicide investigations: An interview study of British and Norwegian detectives. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 10(2), 155–165. doi:10.1002/jip.1384
  • Fahsing, I., & Ask, K. (2016). The making of an expert detective: the role of experience in english and norwegian police officers’ investigative decision-making. Psychology, Crime & Law, 22, 203-223. doi:10.1080/1068316X.2015.1077249
  • Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013–1027. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013
  • Findley, K. A., & Scott, M. S. (2006). The multiple dimensions of tunnel vision in criminal cases. Wisconsin Law Review, 2, 291–397.
  • Fleiss, J. L. (1981). Balanced incomplete block designs for inter-rater reliability studies. Applied Psychological Measurement, 5(1), 105–112. doi:10.1177/014662168100500115
  • Gerring, J. (2001). Social science methodology: A criterial framework. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago:Adeline.
  • Glaser, B. G. (1992). Emergence vs forcing: Basics of grounded theory analysis. California: Sociology Press
  • Graham, S., & Lowery, B. S. (2004). Priming unconscious racial stereotypes about adolescent offenders. Law and Human Behavior, 28(5), 483–504.
  • Greenwald, A. G. (1992). New Look 3: Unconscious cognition reclaimed. American Psychologist, 47(6), 766–779.
  • Greenwald, A. G., & Krieger, L. H. (2006). Implicit bias: Scientific foundations. California Law Review, 94, 945–967. doi:10.2307/20439056
  • Hamilton, D. L, & Gifford, R. K. (1976). Illusory correlation in interpersonal perception: a cognitive basis of stereotypic judgments. Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology, 12, 392-407. doi:
  • Hill, C., Memon, A., & McGeorge, P. (2008). The role of confirmation bias in suspect interviews: A systematic evaluation. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 13(2), 357–371. doi:10.1348/135532507X238682
  • Hillyard, P. (1993). Suspect community: People’s experiences of the prevention of terrorism acts in britain. London: Pluto Press.
  • HMIC. (2005). Community and race relations: Policies and practices within the police service. London: Home Office.
  • Holdaway, S. (2017). The re-professionalization of the police in England and Wales. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 17(5), 588–604. doi:10.1177/1748895817690214
  • Huggon, W. G., 2012. Subtle bias in legal decision making: How attitudes and social norms affect primary and peripheral targets. Unpublished doctoral dissertation: University of Toronto.
  • Kassin, S. M., Goldstein, C. C., & Savitsky, K. (2003). Behavioral confirmation in the interrogation room: On the dangers of presuming guilt. Law and Human Behavior, 27(2), 187. doi:10.1023/A:1022599230598
  • Klein, W. M. (2001). Post hoc construction of self-performance and other performance in self-serving social comparison. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(6), 744–754. doi:10.1177/0146167201276009
  • Lammers, J., & Stapel, D. A. (2011). Retracted: Racist biases in legal decisions are reduced by a justice focus. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 375–387. doi:10.1002/ejsp.783
  • Mackie, D. M. (1996). Social psychological foundations of stereotype formation. In C. N. Macrae, C. Stangor., & M. Hewstone (Eds.), Stereotypes and stereotyping (pp. 41–78). New York: Guilford.
  • Macpherson of Cluny. (1999). The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, Report of an inquiry by Sir William Macpherson of Cluny (pp. 3–10). London: Stationery Office, Parliamentary papers, Cm, 4262.
  • Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 93–120. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.93
  • Marx, A., & Dusa, A. (2011). Crisp-set qualitative comparative analysis (csQCA), contradictions and consistency benchmarks for model specification. Methodological Innovations Online, 6(2), 103–148. doi:10.4256/mio.2010.0037
  • Mears, D. P., Stewart, E. A., Warren, P. Y., & Simons, R. L. (2017). Culture and formal social control: The effect of the code of the street on police and court decision-making. Justice Quarterly, 34(2), 217–247. doi:10.1080/07418825.2016.1149599
  • Minhas, R., Walsh, D., & Bull, R. (2017b). An exploration of perceptions of real-life suspects’ from the Asian Muslim community relating to the police interviewing practices in England. Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism, 12(2), 158–174. doi:10.1080/18335330.2017.1355103
  • Minhas, R. A., Walsh, D., & Bull, R. (2017a). Developing a scale to measure the presence of possible prejudicial stereotyping in police interviews with suspects: The Minhas Investigative Interviewing Prejudicial Stereotyping Scale (MIIPSS). Police Practice and Research, 18(2), 132–145. doi:10.1080/15614263.2016.1249870
  • Mortimer, A., & Shepherd, E. (1999). Frames of mind: Schemata guiding cognition and conduct in the interviewing of suspected offenders. In A. Memon & R. Bull (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of interviewing (pp. 293–315). Chichester: Wiley.
  • Mullen, B., & Johnson, C. (1990). Distinctiveness‐based illusory correlations and stereotyping: A meta‐analytic integration. British Journal of Social Psychology, 29(1), 11–28. doi:10.1111/bjso.1990.29.issue-1
  • Musheno, M. C., Gregware, P. R., & Drass, K. A. (1991). Court management of AIDS disputes: A sociolegal analysis. Law & Social Inquiry, 16(4), 737–774. doi:10.1111/j.1747-4469.1991.tb00869.x
  • Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175–220. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175
  • Pantazis, C., & Pemberton, S. (2009). From the ‘old’ to the ‘new’ suspect community examining the impacts of recent UK counter-terrorist legislation. British Journal of Criminology, 49, 646–666. doi:10.1093/bjc/azp031
  • Peirce, C. S. (1965). Collected Papers: Pragmatism and pragmaticism and Scientific metaphysics (Vol. 5). Harvard University: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
  • Ragin, C. (1987). The comparative method: Moving beyond qualitative and quantitative methods. Berkeley: University of California.
  • Ragin, C., & Sean, D. (2014). fs/QCA [Computer Programme], Version [2.5/3.0]. Irvine, CA: University of California.
  • Ragin, C. C. (2004). Turning the tables: How case-oriented research challenges variable oriented research. In H. E. Brady & D. Collier (Eds.), Rethinking social inquiry: Diverse tools, shared standards (pp. 123–138). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
  • Ragin, C. C. (2008). Redesigning social inquiry: Fuzzy sets and beyond (Vol. 240). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  • Ragin, C. C., & Rihoux, B. (2004). Qualitative comparative analysis (QCA): State of the art and prospects. Qualitative Methods, 2(2), 3–13.
  • Rantala, K., & Hellström, E. (2001). Qualitative comparative analysis and a hermeneutic approach to interview data. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 4(2), 87–100. doi:10.1080/13645570118545
  • Reiner, R. (1991). Chief constables. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  • Rihoux, B. (2003). Bridging the gap between the qualitative and quantitative worlds? A retrospective and prospective view on qualitative comparative analysis. Field Methods, 15(4), 351–365. doi:10.1177/1525822X03257690
  • Rihoux, B., & Marx, A. (2013). QCA, 25 Years after “The Comparative Method” Mapping, Challenges, and Innovations—Mini-Symposium. Political Research Quarterly, 66(1), 167–235. doi:10.1177/1065912912468269
  • Rihoux, B., & Ragin, C. (2008). Configurational comparative analysis. Thousand Oaks. London: Sage Publications.
  • Smith, M. R., & Alpert, G. P. (2007). Explaining police bias: A theory of social conditioning and illusory correlation. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 1262–1283. doi:10.1177/0093854807304484
  • Smith, M. R., Makarios, M., & Alpert, G. P. (2006). Differential suspicion: Theory specification and gender effects in the traffic stop context. Justice Quarterly, 23, 271–295. doi:10.1080/07418820600688883
  • Soulliere, D. M. (2005). Pathways to attrition: A qualitative comparative analysis of justifications for police designations of sexual assault complaints. The Qualitative Report, 10(3), 416–438. Retrieved from http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol10/iss3/2
  • Stokke, O. S. (2007). Qualitative comparative analysis, shaming, and international regime effectiveness. Journal of Business Research, 60, 501–511. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.01.003
  • Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Procedures and techniques for developing a grounded theory (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Taylor, S. E., Fiske, S. T., Etcoff, N. L., & Ruderman, A. J. (1978). Categorical and contextual bases of person memory and stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(7), 778–793. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.36.7.778
  • Todd, A. R., Bodenhausen, G. V., Richeson, J. A., & Galinsky, A. D. (2011). Perspective taking combats automatic expressions of racial bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1027–1042. doi:10.1037/a0022308
  • Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1986). Rational choice and the framing of decisions. Journal of Business, S251–S278. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2352759
  • Walther, E., Nagengast, B., & Trasselli, C. (2005). Evaluative conditioning in social psychology: Facts and speculations. Cognition & Emotion, 19, 175–196. doi:10.1080/02699930441000274
  • Walton, J. (1999). Spirituality of patients recovering from an acute myocardial infarction: A grounded theory study. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 17(1), 34–53. doi:10.1177/089801019901700104
  • Ware, L. (2007). A comparative analysis of unconscious and institutional discrimination in the United States and Britain. Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, 36(1), 89–157.
  • Winand, M., Rihoux, B., Robinson, L., & Zintz, T. (2013). Pathways to high performance: A qualitative comparative analysis of sport governing bodies. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 42(4), 739–762. doi:10.1177/0899764012443312
  • Zerbe, W. J., & Paulhus, D. L. (1987). Socially desirable responding in organizational behavior: A reconception. Academy of Management Review, 12(2), 250–264. doi:10.5465/amr.1987.4307820