533
Views
2
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Articles

Racialized social class work: Making sense of inequality in South Africa during the COVID-19 lockdown

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & ORCID Icon
Pages 148-171 | Received 28 Dec 2020, Accepted 12 Jan 2021, Published online: 21 Feb 2021

References

  • Affolter, T. L. (2014). Now you see me, now you don’t: Ignoring intersections and supporting silence in elite liberal arts college classrooms. In D. Mitchell, Jr., C. Simmons, & L. Greyerbiehl (Eds.), Intersectionality and higher education: Theory, research and praxis (pp. 158–170). New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing.
  • Atkinson, A. B., & Morelli, S. (2011). Economic crises and inequality. United Nations Development Programme.
  • Bapuji, H., Patel, C., Ertug, G., & Allen, D. G. (2020). Corona crisis and inequality: Why management research needs a societal turn. Journal of Management, 46(7), 1205–1222. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206320925881
  • Barnard, H. (2020). The Africa we want and the Africa we see: How scholarship from Africa stands to enrich global scholarship. Africa Journal of Management, 6(2), 132–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322373.2020.1753493
  • Batson, C. D., Early, S., & Salvarani, G. (1997). Perspective taking: Imagining how another feels versus imaging how you would feel. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(7), 751–758. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297237008
  • Blustein, D. L., Duffy, R., Ferreira, J., Cohen-Scalid, R., Gali Cinamone, R., & Allen, B. A. (2020). Unemployment in the time of COVID-19: A research agenda. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 119, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103436
  • Booysen, A. E., & Nkomo, S. M. (2010). Employment equity and diversity management in South Africa. In A. Klarsfeld (Ed.), International handbook of diversity management at work: Country perspectives on diversity and equal treatment (pp. 25–41). Edward Elgar.
  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
  • Bray, R., Gooskens, I., Kahn, L., Moses, S., & Seekings, J. (2010). Growing up in the new South Africa: Childhood and adolescence in post-apartheid Cape Town. Human Sciences Research Council Press.
  • Brown, P., & Tannock, S. (2009). Education, meritocracy and the global war for talent. Journal of Education Policy, 24(4), 377–392. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680930802669938
  • Burger, R., & McAravey, C. (2014, March). What does the ‘middle class’ mean in a polarised, developing country such as South Africa. Econ3x3. https://cisp.cachefly.net/assets/articles/attachments/48537_burger_2014_rethinking_middle_class_final.pdf
  • Burger, R., Steenekamp, C. L., van der Berg, S., & Zoch, A. (2015). The emergent middle class in contemporary South Africa: Examining and comparing rival approaches. Development Southern Africa, 32(1), 25–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2014.975336
  • BusinessTech. (2017, August 4). South Africans are ditching live-in domestic workers and swimming pools. https://businesstech.co.za/news/wealth/190064/south-africans-are-ditching-live-in-domestic-workers-and-swimming-pools/
  • Carter, P. L. (2003). Black cultural capital, status positioning, and schooling conflicts for low-income African American youth. Social Problems, 50(1), 136–155. https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2003.50.1.136
  • Cho, S., Crenshaw, K. W., & McCall, L. (2013). Toward a field of intersectionality studies: Theory, applications, and praxis. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 38(4), 785–810. https://doi.org/10.1086/669608
  • Coe, C., & Pauli, J. (2020). Migration and social class in Africa: Class-making projects in translocal social fields. Africa Today, 66(3/4), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.2979/africatoday.66.3_4.01
  • Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316446002000104
  • Collins, C., Ocampo, O., & Paslaski, S. (2020). Billionaire bonanza 2020: Wealth windfalls, tumbling taxes, and pandemic profiteers. Institute for Policy Studies. https://ips-dc.org/billionaire-bonanza-2020/
  • Côté, S. (2011). How social class shapes thoughts and actions in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 31, 43–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2011.09.004
  • Crawford, W. S., Thompson, M. J., & Ashforth, B. E. (2019). Work-life events theory: Making sense of shock events in dual-earner couples. Academy of Management Review, 44(1), 194–212. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2016.0432
  • Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113
  • Davis, O. L., Yeager, E. A., & Foster, S. J. (2001). Historical empathy and perspective taking in the social studies. Rowman & Littlefield.
  • Durante, F., & Fiske, S. T. (2017). How social-class stereotypes maintain inequality. Current Opinion in Psychology, 18, 43–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.07.033
  • Dymski, G., Hernandez, J., & Mohanty, L. (2013). Race, gender, power, and the US subprime mortgage and foreclosure crisis: A meso analysis. Feminist Economics, 19(3), 124–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2013.791401
  • Eitzen, D. S., & Smith, K. E. 2003. Experiencing poverty: Voices from the bottom. Thomson-Wadworth.
  • Employment Equity Act. (1998). Act No. 55 (South Africa). Government Gazette, No 19370.
  • Fairbanks, E. (2012). South Africa’s awkward teenage years. Foreign Policy, 191, 38–41. https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/01/03/south-africas-awkward-teenage-years/
  • Farquharson, K., & Marjoribanks, T. (2003). Transforming the springboks: Re-imagining the South African nation through sport. Social Dynamics, 29(1), 27–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/02533950308628649
  • Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675400700202
  • Francis, D., & Massie, K. (2018). Tackling wage inequality: Pay ratios and capping pay. In M. N. Smith (Ed.), Confronting Inequality: The South African crisis (pp. 3–7). Fanele.
  • Galinsky, A. D., Ku, G., & Wang, C. S. (2005). Perspective-taking and self-other overlap: Fostering social bonds and facilitating social coordination. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 8(2), 109–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430205051060
  • Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(4), 708–724. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.708
  • Gehlbach, H. (2004). A new perspective on perspective taking: A multidimensional approach to conceptualizing an aptitude. Educational Psychology Review, 16(3), 207–234. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034021.12899.11
  • Geyer, H. S., & Mohammed, F. (2016). Hypersegregation and class-based segregation processes in Cape Town 2001–2011. Urban Forum, 27(1), 35–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-015-9264-6
  • Gilin, D., Maddux, W. W., Carpenter, J., & Galinsky, A. D. (2013). When to use your head and when to use your heart: The differential value of perspective-taking versus empathy in competitive interactions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212465320
  • Gray, B., Johnson, T., Kish-Gephart, J., & Tilton, J. (2018). Identity work by first-generation college students to counteract class-based microaggressions. Organization Studies, 39(9), 1227–1250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840617736935
  • Gray, B., & Kish-Gephart, J. J. (2013). Encountering social class differences at work: How “class work” perpetuates inequality. Academy of Management Review, 38(4), 670–699. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2012.0143
  • Guillemin, M., & Gillam, L. (2004). Ethics, reflexivity, and “ethically important moments” in research. Qualitative Inquiry, 10(2), 261–280. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800403262360
  • Hennick, M. M., Kaiser, B. N., & Marconi, V. C. (2017). Code saturation versus meaning saturation: How many interviews are enough? Qualitative Health Research, 27(4), 591–608. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732316665344
  • Holvino, E. (2010). Intersections: The simultaneity of race, gender and class in organization studies. Gender, Work, and Organization, 17(3), 248–277. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2008.00400.x
  • Hosken, G. (2020, May 31). ‘It’s truly terrifying’: Hunger stalks SA’s children during Covid-19 lockdown. The Sunday Times. https://www.timeslive.co.za/sunday-times/news/2020-05-31-its-truly-terrifying-hunger-stalks-sas-children-during-covid-19-lockdown/.
  • Hurtwitz, I., & Luiz, J. (2007). Urban working class credit usage and over-indebtedness in South Africa. Journal of Southern African Studies, 33(1), 107–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070601136616
  • Johnson, D. W. (1975). Cooperativeness and social perspective taking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(2), 241–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076285
  • Kallschmidt, A. M., & Eaton, A. A. (2019). Are lower social class origins stigmatized at work? A qualitative study of social class concealment and disclosure among white men employees who experienced upward mobility. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 113, 115–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.08.010
  • Kreiner, G. E., Hollensbe, E. C., & Sheep, M. L. (2009). Balancing borders and bridges: Negotiating the work-home interface via boundary work tactics. Academy of Management Journal, 52(4), 704–730. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2009.43669916
  • Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 480–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480
  • Lehohla, P. J. (2017, September 27). Whither the demographic dividend South Africa: The overton window of political possibilities. Statistics South Africa. http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/OP001/OP0012017.pdf
  • Leigh, A., & Melwani, S. (2019). #BlackEmployeesMatter: Mega-threats, identity fusion, and enacting positive deviance in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 44(3), 564–591. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2017.0127
  • Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Jetten, J. (1994). Out of mind but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(5), 808–817. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.5.808
  • Magome, M. (2020, May 1). South Africa eases one of world’s strictest lockdowns. US News. https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2020-05-01/south-africans-walk-outside-as-country-eases-virus-lockdown
  • Martin, S. R., & Côté, S. (2019). Social class transitioners: Their cultural abilities and organizational importance. Academy of Management Review, 44(3), 618–642. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2017.0065
  • McGregor, P. (2005). Credit unions and the supply of insurance to low income households. Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, 76(3), 355–374. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1370-4788.2005.00282.x
  • McIntosh, P. (1998). White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. In M. McGoldrick (Ed.), Re-visioning family therapy: Race, culture, and gender in clinical practice (p. 147–152). The Guilford Press. (Reprinted from “Peace and Freedom,” July/August 1989, pp. 10–12. Also reprinted in modified form from “White Privilege and Male Privilege: A Personal Account of Coming to See Correspondences through Work in Women's Studies,” Center Working Paper 189, 1989).
  • Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed). Sage Publications.
  • Molinsky, A. L. (2013). The psychological processes of cultural retooling. Academy of Management Journal, 56(3), 683–710. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.0492
  • Moore-Berg, S. L., & Karpinski, A. (2019). An intersectional approach to understanding how race and social class affect intergroup processes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12426
  • Neckerman, K. M., Carter, P., & Lee, J. (1999). Segmented assimilation and minority cultures of mobility. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(6), 945–965. https://doi.org/10.1080/014198799329198
  • Omarjee, L. (2020, April 30). SA risks losing 7 million jobs, reaching over 50% unemployment: Treasury’s grim worst-case scenario. Fin24. https://www.fin24.com/Economy/South-Africa/sa-risks-losing-7-million-jobs-reaching-over-50-unemployment-treasurys-grim-worst-case-scenario-20200430
  • Pidd, H., Barr, C., & Mohdin, A. (2020, May 1). Calls for health funding to be prioritised as poor bear brunt of Covid-19. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/01/covid-19-deaths-twice-as-high-in-poorest-areas-in-england-and-wales
  • Pieterse, A. N., Van Knippenberg, D., & Van Dierendonck, D. (2013). Cultural diversity and team performance: The role of team member goal orientation. Academy of Management Journal, 56(3), 782–804. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.0992
  • Pilkington, E. (2020, May 20). Black Americans dying of Covid-19 at three times the rate of white people. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/20/black-americans-death-rate-covid-19-coronavirus
  • Pruyt, E., Auping, W. L., & Kwakkel, J. H. (2015). Ebola in West Africa: Model-based exploration of social psychological effects and interventions. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 32(1), 2–14. https://doi.org/10.1002/sres.2329
  • Ragins, B. R., & Ehrhardt, K. (2020). Gaining perspective: The impact of close cross-race friendships on diversity training and education. Journal of Applied Psychology. Advance Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000807
  • Ramaphosa, C. (2020, April 9). Message by President Cyril Ramaphosa on COVID-19 pandemic. The Presidency, Republic of South Africa. www.presidency.gov.za/speeches/message-president-cyril-ramaphosa-covid-19-pandemic-0
  • Rees, R. C. (1996). Race and sport in global perspective: Lessons from post-apartheid South Africa. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 20(1), 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/019372396020001003
  • Robinson, O. C. (2014). Sampling in interview-based qualitative research: A theoretical and practical guide. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 11(1), 25–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2013.801543
  • Rodriguez, J. K., Holvino, E., Fletcher, J. K., & Nkomo, S. M. (2016). The theory and praxis of intersectionality in work and organisations: Where do we go from here? Gender, Work and Organization, 23(3), 201–222. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12131
  • Schotte, S., Zizzamia, R., & Leibbrandt, M. (2018). A poverty dynamics approach to social stratification: The South African case. World Development, 110, 88–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.024
  • Schuermans, N. (2011). Anxieties, identities and spatialities: Ambivalent geographies of encounter in Cape Town and Flanders [Doctoral dissertation, Catholic University Leuven]. https://limo.libis.be/
  • Scott, J. (2005, May 16). Life at the top in America isn’t just better, it’s longer. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/16/us/class/life-at-the-top-in-america-isnt-just-better-its-longer.html
  • Scully, M., Rothenberg, S., Beaton, E. E., & Tang, Z. (2018). Mobilizing the wealthy: Doing “privilege work” and challenging the roots of inequality. Business & Society, 57(6), 1075–1113. https://doi.org/10.1177/0007650317698941
  • Skeggs, B. (2010). Class, culture, and morality: Legacies and logics in the space for identification. In M. Wetherell & C. T. Mohanty (Eds.), The Sage handbook of identities (pp. 339–359). London: SAGE Publications Ltd.
  • Smit, S. (2020, May 7). Domestic workers are hit hard by lockdown. Mail & Guardian. https://mg.co.za/coronavirus-essentials/2020-05-07-domestic-workers-are-hit-hard-by-lockdown/
  • South African Human Sciences Research Council. (2020, April 26). Street talk – asikulume: Impact and awareness of the Coronavirus amongst South Africans. The Human Sciences Research Council. http://www.hsrc.ac.za/en/media-briefs/general/lockdown-survey-results
  • Statistics South Africa. (2019, October 3). Inequality trends in South Africa: A multidimensional diagnostic of inequality. www.statssa.gov.za/publications/Report-03-10-19/Report-03-10-192017.pdf
  • Statistics South Africa. (2020, May). Quarterly labour force survey (QLFS; Quarter 4: 2019). Statistics South Africa. www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0211/P02114thQuarter2019.pdf
  • Steenveld, L., & Strelitz, L. (1998). The 1995 Rugby World Cup and the politics of nation-building in South Africa. Media, Culture and Society, 20(4), 609–629. https://doi.org/10.1177/016344398020004006
  • Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., & Phillips, T. L. (2014). Social class culture cycles: How three gateway contexts shape selves and fuel inequality. Annual Review of Psychology, 65(1), 611–634. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115143
  • Steyn, M., & Foster, D. (2008). Repertoires for talking white: Resistant whiteness in post-apartheid South Africa. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31(1), 25–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870701538851
  • Stoddard, E. (2020, May 14). Crying wolf: Lockdown’s dog-walking issue has deep roots, revealing South Africa divisions. The Daily Maverick. https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2020-05-14-crying-wolf-lockdowns-dog-walking-issue-has-deep-roots-revealing-south-africa-divisions/
  • Stuber, J. M. (2010). Class dismissed? The social-class worldviews of privileged college students. In A. Howard & R. A. Gaztambide-Fernandez (Eds.), Educating elites: Class privilege and educational advantage (pp. 131–152). Rowman & Littlefield Education.
  • Telzak, S. C. (2012). The tithes of apartheid: Perceptions of social mobility among black individuals in Cape Town, South Africa. Centre for Social Science Research: University of Cape Town. http://cssr.uct.ac.za/pub/wp/315/
  • United States Census Bureau. (2018, September 12). Income and Poverty in the United States: 2017. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2018/demo/p60-263.pdf
  • Valji, N. (2020, May 19). How women are getting squeezed by the pandemic. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/20/us/women-economy-jobs-coronavirus-gender.html
  • Visagie, J., & Posel, D. (2013). A reconsideration of what and who is middle class in South Africa. Development Southern Africa, 30(2), 149–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2013.797224
  • Vogel, E. A., Rose, J. P., Roberts, L. R., & Eckles, K. (2014). Social comparison, social media, and self-esteem. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(4), 206–222. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000047
  • Wale, K. (2013). Perceptions of class mobility. In P. Alexandra, C. Ceruti, K. Motseke, M. Phadi, & K. Wale (Eds.), Class in Soweto (pp. 164–189). KwaZulu Natal Press.
  • Weis, L. (2008). Toward a re-thinking of class as nested in race and gender. In L. Weis (Ed.), The way class works: Readings on school, family, and the economy (pp. 291–304). Routledge.
  • World Bank. (2018, March). Overcoming poverty and inequality in South Africa: An assessment of drivers, constraints and opportunities. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/530481521735906534/pdf/124521-REV-OUO-South-Africa-Poverty-and-Inequality-Assessment-Report-2018-FINAL-WEB.pdf

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.