Revisiting the Asian regulatory regimes in transnational education: how local politics (re)oriented higher education policy in Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong

References

• Brenner, N., J. Peck, and N. Theodore. 2010. “Variegated Neoliberalization: Geographies, Modalities, Pathways.” Global Networks 10 (2): 182–222.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carroll, T., and D. S. L. Jarvis. 2017. “Disembedding Autonomy: Asia After the Developmental State.” In Asia After the Developmental State: Disembedding Autonomy, edited by T. Carroll and D. S. L. Jarvis, 3–48. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Caruana, V. 2016. “Researching the Transnational Higher Education Policy Landscape: Exploring Network Power and Dissensus in a Globalizing System.” London Review of Education 14 (1): 56–69.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cerny, P. G. 1990. The Changing Architecture of Politics: Structure, Agency, and the Future of the State. London: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Cheng, Y. C., A. C. K. Cheung, and T. W. W. Yuen. 2011. “Development of a Regional Education Hub: The Case of Hong Kong.” International Journal of Educational Management in Education 25 (5): 474–493.
   Google Scholar
• Chin, J. 2000. “A new Balance: The Chinese Vote in the 1999 Malaysian General Election.” South East Asia Research 8 (3): 281–299.
   Google Scholar
• Coward, M. 2012. “Postglobalization.” In The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization, edited by G. Ritzer, 1687–1689. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• CSPE [Concourse for Self-financing Post-secondary Education]. 2020. Non-Means-Tested Subsidy Scheme for Self-Financing Undergraduate Studies in Hong Kong. Accessed September 10, 2020. https://www.cspe.edu.hk/en/nmt/index.html.
   Google Scholar
• CUEP [Committee on University Education Pathways Beyond 2015]. 2012. Greater Diversity, More Opportunities. Singapore: Ministry of Education.
   Google Scholar
• Daquila, T. C. 2013. “Internationalizing Higher Education in Singapore: Government Policies and the NUS Experience.” Journal of Studies in International Education 17 (5): 629–647.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davie, S. 2014. “Singapore May Rue Fall in Foreign Student Numbers.” The Straits Times, October 2.
   Google Scholar
• Davie, S. 2017. “University Places: To Cap or Not to Cap.” The Straits Times, May 18.
   Google Scholar
• Education Bureau. 2014. Legislative Council Brief – Recurrent Funding for University Grants Committee-Funded Institutions in the 2015/16 Roll-Over Year. Hong Kong: Legislative Council.
   Google Scholar
• Education Bureau. 2016. HKSAR Government Scholarship Fund. Accessed November 18, 2016. http://www.edb.gov.hk/en/edu-system/postsecondary/local-higher-edu/publicly-funded-programmmes/scholarship.html.
   Google Scholar
• Gopinathan, S., and M. H. Lee. 2011. “Challenging and Co-Opting Globalisation: Singapore’s Strategies in Higher Education.” Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 33 (3): 287–299.
   Google Scholar
• Hayashi, S. 2017. “Globalisation and Development: The Evolving Idea of the Developmental State.” In Asia After the Developmental State: Disembedding Autonomy, edited by T. Carroll, and D. S. L. Jarvis, 72–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• HED [Higher Education Department]. 2020. Senarai daftar dan statistik IPTS [Private Higher Education Institutions Registry and Statistics]. Accessed November 9, 2020. http://jpt.mohe.gov.my/index.php/ipts/institusi-pendidikan-tinggi-swasta/senarai-daftar-dan-statistik-ipts.
   Google Scholar
• Hill, C., K.-C. Cheong, Y.-C. Leong, and R. Fernandez-Chung. 2014. “TNE – Trans-National Education or Tensions Between National and External? A Case Study of Malaysia.” Studies in Higher Education 39 (6): 952–966.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jayasuriya, K. 2010. “Learning by the Market: Regulatory Regionalism, Bologna, and Accountability Communities.” Globalisation, Societies and Education 8 (1): 7–22.
   Google Scholar
• Jayasuriya, K. 2015. “Constituting Market Citizenship: Regulatory State, Market Making and Higher Education.” Higher Education 70 (6): 973–985.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight, J. 2013. “Education Hubs: International, Regional and Local Dimensions of Scale and Scope.” Comparative Education 49 (3): 374–387.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight, J., and S. Morshidi. 2011. “The Complexities and Challenges of Regional Education Hubs: Focus on Malaysia.” Higher Education 62 (5): 593–606.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kwong, Y. H. 2016. “The Growth of ‘Localism’ in Hong Kong: A New Path for the Democracy Movement?” Current Affairs: China Perspectives 2016: 63–68.
   Google Scholar
• Lai, A., and R. Maclean. 2011. “Managing Human Capital in World Cities: The Development of Hong Kong Into an Education Hub.” Asia Pacific Journal of Education 31 (3): 249–262.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lam, C. 2018. The 2018 Policy Address: Striving Ahead, Rekindling Hope. Hong Kong: Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, H. L. 2011. “Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong’s National Day Rally 2011 Speech.” Prime Minister’s Office Singapore. Accessed November 18, 2016. http://www.pmo.gov.sg/mediacentre/prime-minister-lee-hsien-loongs-national-day-rally-2011-speech-english.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, H. L. 2012. “Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong’s National Day Rally 2012 Speech.” Prime Minister’s Office Singapore. Accessed November 18, 2016. http://www.pmo.gov.sg/mediacentre/prime-minister-lee-hsien-loongs-national-day-rally-2012-speech-english.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, H. L. 2014. “Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong’s National Day Rally 2014 Speech.” Prime Minister’s Office Singapore. Accessed November 18, 2016. http://www.pmo.gov.sg/mediacentre/prime-minister-lee-hsien-loongs-national-day-rally-2014-speech-english.
   Google Scholar
• Leung, C. Y. 2013. The 2013 Policy Address: Seek Change Maintain Stability Serve the People with Pragmatism. Hong Kong: Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• Leung, C. Y. 2014. The 2014 Policy Address: Support the Needy, Let Youth Flourish, Unleash Hong Kong’s Potential. Hong Kong: Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• Leung, C. Y. 2015. The 2015 Policy Address: Uphold the Rule of Law, Seize the Opportunities, Make the Right Choices: Pursue Democracy, Boost the Economy, Improve People’s Livelihood. Hong Kong: Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• Leung, C. Y. 2017. The 2017 Policy Address: Make Best Use of Opportunities, Develop the Economy, Improve People’s Livelihood, Build an Inclusive Society. Hong Kong: Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• Lo, W. Y. W. 2014. “Think Global, Think Local: The Changing Landscape of Higher Education and the Role of Quality Assurance in Singapore.” Policy and Society 33 (3): 263–273.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo, W. Y. W. 2015. “Revisiting the Notion of Hong Kong as a Regional Education Hub.” Higher Education Policy 28 (1): 55–68.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo, W. Y. W. 2017. “The Recalibration of Neoliberalisation: Repoliticising Higher Education Policy in Hong Kong.” Higher Education 73 (5): 759–773.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo, W. Y. W. 2018. “After Globalisation: A Reconceptualisation of Transnational Higher Education Governance in Singapore and Hong Kong.” Higher Education Quarterly 72 (1): 3–14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lo, W. Y. W., and H. H. H. Tang. 2017. “Dancing with Global Trends: Higher Education Policy and University Governance in Hong Kong, 1997–2012.” Journal of Educational Administration and History 49 (1): 53–71.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lui, T. L. 2014. “Opportunities and Tensions in the Process of Educational Globalisation: The Case of Hong Kong.” Asia Pacific Viewpoint 55 (2): 132–143.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marginson, S. 2011a. “Higher Education and Public Good.” Higher Education Quarterly 65 (4): 411–433.
   Google Scholar
• Marginson, S. 2011b. “Higher Education in East Asia and Singapore: Rise of the Confucian Model.” Higher Education 61 (5): 587–611.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marginson, S. 2013. “The Impossibility of Capitalist Markets in Higher Education.” Journal of Education Policy 28 (3): 353–370.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MoHE [Ministry of Higher Education]. 2007. The National Higher Education Strategic Plan Beyond 2020. Putrajaya: Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia.
   Google Scholar
• Mok, K. H. 2008. “Varieties of Regulatory Regimes in Asia: The Liberalization of the Higher Education Market and Changing Governance in Hong Kong, Singapore and Malaysia.” The Pacific Review 21 (2): 147–170.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mok, K. H. 2010. “When State Centralism Meets Neo-Liberalism: Managing University Governance Change in Singapore and Malaysia.” Higher Education 60 (4): 419–440.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mok, K. H. 2011. “The Quest for Regional Hub of Education: Growing Heterarchies, Organizational Hybridization, and New Governance in Singapore and Malaysia.” Journal of Education Policy 26 (1): 61–81.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morshidi, S., and R. Middlehurst. 2016. “Malaysia, TNE and Politics.” In Higher Education in the Asian Century: The European Legacy and the Future of Transnational Education in the ASEAN Region, edited by C. Hill, and R. M. Fernandez-Chung, 6–20. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Morshidi, S., and C. D. Wan. 2016. “Higher Education in Malaysia.” In The Palgrave Handbook of Asia Pacific Higher Education, edited by C. Collins, M. N. N. Lee, J. N. Hawkins, and D. Neubauer, 469–482. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Münch, R. 2014. Academic Capitalism: Universities in the Global Struggle for Excellence. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Ng, P. T. 2013. “The Global War for Talent: Responses and Challenges in the Singapore Higher Education System.” Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management 35 (3): 280–292.
   Google Scholar
• Ng, P. T., and C. Tan. 2010. “The Singapore Global Schoolhouse: An Analysis of the Development of the Tertiary Education Landscape in Singapore.” International Journal of Educational Management 24 (3): 178–188.
   Google Scholar
• Olds, K. 2007. “Global Assemblage: Singapore, Foreign Universities, and the Construction of a ‘Global Education Hub’.” World Development 35 (6): 959–975.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olssen, M. 2016. “Neoliberal Competition in Higher Education Today: Research, Accountability and Impact.” British Journal of Sociology of Education 37 (1): 129–148.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richards, C. 2019. “Higher Education Privatisation, Internationalization and Marketisation: Singaporean Versus Malaysian Models of Asian Education Hub Policy.” Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 49 (3): 375–392.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson, S. L. 2010. “The EU, ‘Regulatory State Regionalism’ and New Modes of Higher Education Governance.” Globalisation, Societies and Education 8 (1): 23–37.
   Google Scholar
• Sanders, J. S. 2019. “National Internationalisation of Higher Education Policy in Singapore and Japan: Context and Competition.” Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 49 (3): 413–429.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sassen, S. 2007. A Sociology of Globalization. London: W. W. Norton and Company Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Sharma, Y., and E. Tan. 2013. “Controversy Over Compulsory Islamic Studies on Foreign Campuses.” University World News, August 17. Accessed April 13, 2018. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20130815132718357.
   Google Scholar
• Sidhu, R., K. C. Ho, and B. S. A. Yeoh. 2014. “Singapore: Building a Knowledge and Education Hub.” In International Education Hubs: Student, Talent, Knowledge-Innovation Models, edited by J. Knight, 121–143. Dordrecht: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Sin, I. L., M. W. H. Leung, and J. Waters. 2019. “Degrees of Value: Comparing the Contextual Complexities of UK Transnational Education in Malaysia and Hong Kong.” Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 49 (1): 132–148.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sirat, M. B. 2010. “Strategic Planning Directions of Malaysia’s Higher Education: University Autonomy in the Midst of Political Uncertainties.” Higher Education 59 (4): 461–473.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan, J. 2016. “Singapore’s ‘Global School-House’ Aspirations.” International Higher Education 87 (Fall): 9–10.
   Google Scholar
• Tan, C. 2017. “Lifelong Learning Through the Skillsfuture Movement in Singapore: Challenges and Prospects.” International Journal of Lifelong Education 36 (3): 278–291.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tan, C., and P. T. Ng. 2007. “Dynamics of Change: Decentralised Centralism of Education in Singapore.” Journal of Educational Change 8 (2): 155–168.
   Google Scholar
• Teo, C. H. 2000. “Education Towards the 21st Century – Singapore's Universities of Tomorrow.” Minister for Education and Second Minister for Defence at the Alumni International Singapore Lecture, January 7. Accessed April 13, 2018. http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/speeches/2000/sp10012000.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Tsang, Y. K. 2009. The 2009-10 Policy Address: Breaking New Ground Together. Hong Kong: Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• Tsang, Y. K. 2011. The 2011-12 Policy Address: From Strength to Strength. Hong Kong: Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• Tso, S. H., and R. Yang. 2019. “Private Universities are Facing an Uncertain Future.” University World News, January 25. Accessed November 25, 2020. http://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20190121145730995.
   Google Scholar
• Tung, C. H. 2004. The 2004-05 Policy Address: Seizing Opportunities for Development Promoting People-Based Governance. Hong Kong: Government Printer.
   Google Scholar
• UGC [Universities Grants Committee]. 2004. Hong Kong Higher Education: To Make a Difference, To Move with the Times. Hong Kong: University Grants Committee.
   Google Scholar
• UGC [Universities Grants Committee]. 2010. Aspirations for the Higher Education System in Hong Kong – Report of the University Grants Committee. Hong Kong: Universities Grants Committee.
   Google Scholar
• University World News. 2013. “Court Quashes New Private College Registration Rules.” University World News, May 25. Accessed April 13, 2018. http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20130524143940665.
   Google Scholar
• Wan, C. D., A. Abdul Razak, and A. B. Lim. 2015. “Private Higher Education in Malaysia.” In Private Higher Education: A Global Perspective, edited by K. M. Joshi, and S. Paivandi, 341–385. Delhi: B.R. Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Wan, C. D., A. Abdul Razak, and I. Russayani. 2016. “Equity in Malaysian Higher Education: Revisiting the Policies and Initiatives.” In Equity in Higher Education: A Global Perspective, edited by S. Paivandi, and K. M. Joshi, 83–96. Delhi: Studera Press.
   Google Scholar
• Waring, P. 2014. “Singapore’s Global Schoolhouse Strategy: Retreat or Recalibration?” Studies in Higher Education 39 (5): 874–884.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waters, J. 2018. “International Education is Political! Exploring the Politics of International Student Mobilities.” Journal of International Students 8 (3): 1459–1478.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waters, J., and M. W. H. Leung. 2017. “Domesticating Transnational Education: Discourses of Social Value, Self-Worth and the Institutionalisation of Failure in ‘Meritocratic’ Hong Kong.” Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 42 (2): 233–245.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welch, A. 2017. “Higher Education and the Developmental State: The View from East and South East Asia.” In Asia After the Developmental State: Disembedding Autonomy, edited by T. Carroll, and D. S. L. Jarvis, 359–387. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Woo, J. J. 2018. “Educating the Developmental State: Policy Integration and Mechanism Redesign in Singapore’s SkillsFuture Scheme.” Journal of Asian Public Policy 11 (3): 267–284.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Bank. 2007. Malaysia and the Knowledge Economy: Building a World-Class Higher Education System. Kuala Lumpur: Economic Planning Unit, Prime Minister’s Department Malaysia and Washington: The World Bank.
   Google Scholar
• Yeo, G. 2003. “The Global Schoolhouse.” Singapore Government Press Release, August 16. Accessed April 13, 2018. http://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/speeches/view-html?filename=2003081602.htm.
   Google Scholar