References
- Ajulu, Rok. 2002. “Politicised Ethnicity, Competitive Politics and Conflict in Kenya: A Historical Perspective.” African Studies 61 (2): 251–268. doi:10.1080/0002018022000032947.
- Aufderheide, Patricia, and Charles M. Firestone. 1993. Media Literacy: A Report of the National Leadership Conference on Media Literacy. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
- Ayesiza, Jackline. 2019. “The Impact of Fake News on the Media Houses and the Public in Uganda.” PhD diss., Makerere University.
- BBC. 2019a. “BBC Country Profile: Kenya - Media.” Accessed July 24, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13681344.
- BBC. 2019b. “BBC Country Profile: Rwanda - Media.” Accessed July 29, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14093244.
- BBC Media Action. 2019. “Uganda - Media Landscape Report.” https://www.communityengagementhub.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2019/09/Uganda-Media-Landscape-report_BBC-Media-Action_February-2019.pdf.
- Bennett, W. Lance. 2008. Civic Life Online: Learning How Digital Media Can Engage Youth. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- Bishuma, Nasra. 2020. “COVID-19: How to Spot Fake News.” The New Times, March 20, 2020. https://www.newtimes.co.rw/news/covid-19-how-spot-fake-news
- Blanshe, Musinguzi. 2021. “Uganda: Museveni’s Fight Against Fake News After Reports of his Death.” The Africa Report, July 22, 2021. https://www.theafricareport.com/109493/uganda-musevenis-fight-against-fake-news-after-reports-of-his-death/.
- Buckingham, David. 2003. Media Education: Literacy, Learning, and Contemporary Culture. Cambridge: Polity Press.
- Busari, Stephanie, and Bukola Adebayo. 2020. “Nigeria Records Chloroquine Poisoning after Trump Endorses It for Coronavirus Treatment.” CNN, March 23, 2020. https://edition.cnn.com/2020/03/23/africa/chloroquine-trump-nigeria-intl/index.html.
- Carmi, Elinor, Simeon J. Yates, Eleanor Lockley, and Alicja Pawluczuk. 2020. “Data Citizenship: Rethinking Data Literacy in the age of Disinformation, Misinformation, and Malinformation.” Internet Policy Review 9 (2): 1–22.
- Cavazos, Roberto. 2019. “The Economic Cost of Bad Actors on the Internet: Fake News in 2019.” CHEQ and the University of Baltimore. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/ https://info.cheq.ai/hubfs/Research/THE_ECONOMIC_COST_OF_BAD_ACTORS_Influencers.pdf.
- Chibita, Monica, and Pieter J. Fourie. 2007. “A Socio-History of the Media and Participation in Uganda.” Communication 33 (1): 1–25.
- Cissé, Coura. 2018. “Awards Ceremony for the Winners of the 2018 General Competition: Macky Sall on a Crusade Against ‘Fake News.’” Actusen, February 8, 2018. https://actusen.sn/ceremonie-de-remise-de-prix-aux-laureats-du-concours-general-2018-macky-sall-en-croisade-contre-les-fake-news
- Conger, Krista. 2021. “How Misinformation, Medical Mistrust Fuel Vaccine Hesitancy.” Stanford Medicine, September 2, 2021. https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2021/09/infodemic-covid-19.html.
- Cunliffe-Jones, Peter, Sahite Gaye, Wallace Gichunge, Chido Onumah, Cornia Pretorius, and Anya Schiffrin. 2021. “The State of Media Literacy in Sub-Saharan Africa 2020 and a Theory of Misinformation Literacy.” In Misinformation Policy in Sub-Saharan Africa: From Laws and Regulations to Media Literacy, edited by Peter Cunliffe-Jones, Assane Diagne, Alan Finlay, Sahite Gaye, Wallace Gichunge, Chido Onumah, Cornia Pretorius and Anya Schiffrin, 5–96. London: University of Westminster Press. doi:10.16997/book53.a. License: CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0.
- Duggan, Briana. 2016. “Uganda Shuts Down Social Media; Candidates Arrested on Election Day.” CNN, February 19, 2016. https://www.cnn.com/2016/02/18/world/uganda-election-social-media-shutdown/index.html.
- Egelhofer, Jana Laura, and Sophie Lecheler. 2019. “Fake News as a Two-Dimensional Phenomenon: A Framework and Research Agenda.” Annals of the International Communication Association 43 (2): 97–116. doi:10.1080/23808985.2019.1602782.
- Ennab, Farah, Maryam Salma Babar, Abdul Rahman Khan, Rahul Jagdishchandra Mittal, Faisal A. Nawaz, Mohammad Yasir Essar, and Sajjad S. Fazel. 2022. “Implications of Social Media Misinformation on COVID-19 Vaccine Confidence among Pregnant Women in Africa.” Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health 14: 100981. doi:10.1016/j.cegh.2022.100981.
- Ensign, Margee, and Mathilde Mukantabana. 2014. “Rwanda 20 Years Later: A Model for Progress and Reconciliation.” The Christian Science Monitor, April 7, 2014. https://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2014/0407/Rwanda-20-years-later-A-model-for-progress-and-reconciliation.
- Fojo. n.d. “Rwanda: Fighting Rumors and Fake News About Covid-19.” Fojo. https://fojo.se/en/rwanda-fighting-rumors-and-fake-news-about-covid-19/.
- Frère, Marie-Soleil. 2009. “After the Hate Media.” Global Media and Communication 5: 327–352. doi:10.1177/1742766509348675.
- Funke, Daniel, and Susan Benkelman. 2019. “Misinformation is Inciting Violence around the World. And Tech Platforms Don’t Seem to Have a Plan to Stop it.” Poynter Institute, April 19, 2019. https://www.poynter.org/fact-checking/2019/misinformation-is-inciting-violence-around-the-world-and-tech-platforms-dont-have-a-plan-to-stop-it/.
- Gicheru, Catherine. 2021. “Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2021: 10th Edition.” https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/digital-news-report/2021/kenya.
- Goretti Nassanga, Linda. 2008. “Journalism Ethics and the Emerging New Media Culture of Radio Talk Shows and Public Debates (Ekimeeza) in Uganda.” Journalism 9 (5): 646–663. doi:10.1177/1464884908094163.
- Goretti Nassanga, Linda. 2009. “Participatory Discussion Programs as ‘Hybrid Community Media’ in Uganda.” International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics 5 (½): 119–124. doi:10.1386/macp.5.1-2.119_3.
- Internet World Stats. 2022. “Internet World Stats: Usage and Population Statistics, Africa.” https://www.internetworldstats.com/stats1.htm.
- Isoba, John C. G. 1980. “The Rise and Fall of Uganda’s Newspaper Industry, 1900–1976.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 57 (2): 224–233.
- Jenkins, Henry, Ravi Purushotma, Katherine Clinton, Margaret Weigel, and Alice J. Robinson. 2006. Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century. Chicago, IL: The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.
- Jeong, Se-Hoon, Hyunyi Cho, and Yoori Hwang. 2012. “Media Literacy Interventions: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Journal of Communication 62 (3): 454–472. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2012.01643.x.
- Kahne, Joseph, Nam-Jin Lee, and Jessica Timpany Feezell. 2012. “Digital Media Literacy Education and Online Civic and Political Participation.” International Journal of Communication 6: 1–24.
- Kakumba, Makanga Ronald, and Josephine Appiah-Nyamekye Sanny. 2021. “Ugandans See Social Media as Beneficial and Want Unrestricted Access, But Are Wary of Its Use to Spread Fake News.” Afrobarometer, September 24, 2021. https://media.africaportal.org/documents/ad480-ugandans_want_unrestricted_access_to_social_media-24sept21.pdf.
- Kalyango Jr, Yusuf, and Petya Eckler. 2010. “Media Performance, Agenda Building, and Democratization in East Africa.” Communication Yearbook 34: 355–389.
- Krumpal, Ivar. 2013. “Determinants of Social Desirability Bias in Sensitive Surveys: A Literature Review.” Quality & Quantity 47 (4): 2025–2047. doi:10.1007/s11135-011-9640-9.
- Lyons, Benjamin A., Jacob M. Montgomery, Andrew M. Guess, Brendan Nyhan, and Jason Reifler. 2021. “Overconfidence in News Judgments is Associated with False News Susceptibility.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118 (23): 1–10.
- Mabweazara, Hayes Mawindi. 2014. “Introduction: Digital technologies and the evolving African newsroom: Towards an African digital journalism epistemology.” Digital Journalism 2 (1): 2–11. doi:10.1080/21670811.2013.850195.
- Mare, Admire, Hayes Mawindi Mabweazara, and Dumisani Moyo. 2019. “‘Fake News’ and Cyber-Propaganda in Sub-Saharan Africa: Recentering the Research Agenda.” African Journalism Studies 40 (4): 1–12. doi:10.1080/23743670.2020.1788295.
- McGuire, William J. 1964. “Inducing Resistance to Persuasion: Some Contemporary Approaches.” In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, edited by Leonard Berkowitz, 191–229. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Academic Press.
- McIntyre, Karen, and Meghan Sobel Cohen. 2021. “Public Trust in State-Run News Media in Rwanda.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 98 (3): 808–827.
- Media Council of Kenya. 2020. “Status of the Media Survey: November 2020 Report.” https://mediacouncil.or.ke/sites/default/files/downloads/2020-STATUS%20OF%20THE%20MEDIA%20REPORT%20%281%29.pdf.
- Media Council of Kenya. 2021. “State of the Media: Survey Report 2021.” https://mediacouncil.or.ke/sites/default/files/downloads/Final%20STATE%20OF%20THE%20MEDIA%20REPORT%202021.pdf.
- Ministry of ICT and National Guidance. 2020. “Census of all FM Radio Stations in the Country and Their Coverage.” https://ugandajournalistsresourcecentre.com/8425-2/.
- Mudge, Lewis. 2021. “What Press Freedom Looks Like in Rwanda.” Human Rights Watch, May 3, 2021. https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/05/03/what-press-freedom-looks-rwanda#.
- Muhire, Léon-Pierre. 2021. “Rwanda: Education, Media Literacy Crucial in Combating Genocide Denial - Experts.” allAfrica, June 30, 2021. https://allafrica.com/stories/202106300807.html.
- Mutahi, Patrick. 2020. “Fake News and the 2017 Kenyan Elections.” South African Journal for Communication Theory and Research 46 (4): 31–49.
- Mwesige, Peter G. 2004. “Disseminators, advocates and watchdogs: A profile of Ugandan journalists in the new millennium.” Journalism 5 (1): 69–96. doi:10.1177/1464884904039556.
- Nannyonga, Betty K., Rhoda K. Wanyenze, Pontiano Kaleebu, John M. Ssenkusu, Freddie Sengooba, Tom Lutalo, Willford Kirungi, et al. 2020. “Infodemic: How an Epidemic of Misinformation Could Lead to a High Number of the Novel Corona Virus Disease Cases in Uganda.” Preprints, 2020060009. doi:10.20944/preprints202006.0009.v1.
- Ndunda, Joseph. 2020. “Robert Alai to Spend Weekend in Custody Over ‘Fake’ Coronavirus Post.” Nairobi News, March 20, 2020. https://nairobinews.nation.co.ke/news/robert-alai-to-spend-weekend-in-custody-over-fake-coronavirus-post.
- Niyitegeka, Pacifique Emmanuel. 2020. “Exploring the Acquisition of Media Literacy Skills through Media Participation in Rwanda: A Case Study of Huye Community Radio.” Master’s Thesis, Lund University. https://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=9009400&fileOId=9018753.
- Nyabuga, George, and Nancy Booker. 2013. “Mapping Digital Media: Kenya.” Open Society Foundations. https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/publications/mapping-digital-media-kenya.
- Nyamnjoh, Francis. 1999. “African Cultural Studies, Cultural Studies on Africa: How to Make a Useful Difference.” Critical Arts: A Journal of Cultural Studies in Africa 13 (1): 15–39.
- Obonyo, Levi. 2011. “Towards a Theory of Communication for Africa: The Challenges for Emerging Democracies.” Communicatio: South African Journal for Communication Theory and Research 37 (1): 1–20.
- Okakwu, Evelyn. 2018. “Nigerian Government Launches Campaign Against ‘Fake News.’” Premium Times, July 11, 2018. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/more-news/275846-nigerian-govt-launches-campaign-against-fake-news.html
- Olewe, Dickens. 2018. “Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania in ‘Anti-Fake News Campaign’.” BBC, May 16, 2018. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-44137769.
- Omondi, Dominic. 2020. “Kenya Regains Position as Region’s Biggest Economy.” The Standard, February 23, 2020. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/business/article/2001361459/kenya-regains-position-as-regions-biggest-economy.
- Portland Communications. 2017. “The Reality of Fake News in Kenya.” https://portland-communications.com/pdf/The-Reality-of-Fake-News-in-Kenya.pdf.
- Potter, W. James. 2004. Theory of Media Literacy: A Cognitive Approach. Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi: Sage.
- Reporters Without Borders. 2021a. “Rwanda: Censorship and Self-Censorship.” https://rsf.org/en/rwanda.
- Reporters Without Borders. 2021b. “World Press Freedom Index.” https://rsf.org/en/ranking.
- Rheingold, Howard. 2008. “Using Participatory Media and Public Voice to Encourage Civic Engagement.” In Civic Life Online: Learning how Digital Media Can Engage Youth, edited by W. L. Bennett, 97–118. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
- Rocha, Yasmim Mendes, Gabriel Acácio de Moura, Gabriel Alves Desidério, Carlos Henrique de Oliveira, Francisco Dantas Lourenço, and Larissa Deadame de Figueiredo Nicolete. 2021. “The Impact of Fake News on Social Media and its Influence on Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Public Health 31: 1007–1016.
- Rwanda Media Barometer. 2021. Kigali: Rwanda Governance Board.
- Sabiiti, Daniel. 2019. “Rwanda Moves to Increase Digital Literacy Figures.” KT Press, November 28, 2019. https://www.ktpress.rw/2019/11/rwanda-moves-to-increase-digital-literacy-figures/.
- Sanchez, Gabriel R, and Keesha Middlemass. 2022. “Misinformation is Eroding the Public’s Confidence in Democracy.” Brookings Institution, July 26, 2022. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/fixgov/2022/07/26/misinformation-is-eroding-the-publics-confidence-in-democracy/.
- Semujju, Brian. 2020. “Theorizing Dependency Relations in Small Media.” Communication Theory 30 (4): 370–387. doi:10.1093/ct/qtz032.
- Sobel, Meghan, and Karen McIntyre. 2019. “The State of Journalism and Press Freedom in Postgenocide Rwanda.” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 96 (2): 558–578. doi:10.1177/1077699018782201.
- Sobel, Meghan, and Karen McIntyre. 2020. “The State of Press Freedom in Uganda.” International Journal of Communication 14: 20.
- Stremlau, Nicole. 2018. Media, Conflict, and the State in Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- Treen, Kathie M. d'I., Hywel T. P. Williams, and Saffron J. O'Neill. 2020. “Online Misinformation About Climate Change.” WIRES Climate Change 11 (5): e665. doi:10.1002/wcc.665.
- Tully, Melissa, Dani Madrid-Morales, Herman Wasserman, Gregory Gondwe, and Kioko Ireri. 2022. “Who is Responsible for Stopping the Spread of Misinformation? Examining Audience Perceptions of Responsibilities and Responses in six Sub-Saharan African Countries.” Digital Journalism 10 (5): 679–697. doi:10.1080/21670811.2021.1965491.
- Tully, Melissa, Emily K. Vraga, and Leticia Bode. 2020. “Designing and Testing News Literacy Messages for Social Media.” Mass Communication and Society 23 (1): 22–46. doi:10.1080/15205436.2019.1604970.
- Uganda Communications Commission. 2022. “Licensed Television Broadcasters.” https://www.ucc.co.ug/licensed-television-broadcasters/.
- UNESCO. 2020. “Expert Consultation on UNESCO Media and Information Literacy Curriculum for Teachers in Uganda.” https://en.unesco.org/events/expert-consultation-unesco-media-and-information-literacy-curriculum-teachers-uganda.
- Vraga, Emily K., Leticia Bode, and Melissa Tully. 2022. “Creating News Literacy Messages to Enhance Expert Corrections of Misinformation on Twitter.” Communication Research 49 (2): 245–267. doi:10.1177/0093650219898094.
- Wasserman, Herman. 2020. “Fake News from Africa: Panics, Politics and Paradigms.” Journalism 21 (1): 3–16. doi:10.1177/1464884917746861.
- Wasserman, Herman, and Dani Madrid-Morales. 2019. “An Exploratory Study of ‘Fake News’ and Media Trust in Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa.” African Journalism Studies 40 (1): 107–123. doi:10.1080/23743670.2019.1627230