A review of the polygraph: history, methodology and current status

References

• Alder, K. (2002). A social history of untruth: Lie detection and trust in twentieth-century America. Representations, 80(1), 1–33. doi:10.1525/rep.2002.80.1.1
   Google Scholar
• Alder, K. (2007). America’s two gadgets. Isis, 98(1), 124–137. doi:10.1086/522310
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Polygraph Association. (1997). Manual for polygraph school accreditation. Chattanooga, TN: APA National Office.
   Google Scholar
• Baken, R. J., & Orlikoff, R. F. (2000). Clinical measurement of speech and voice. San Diego, CA: Cengage Learning.
   Google Scholar
• Barland, G. H. (1981). A validation and reliability study of counterintelligence screening test ( Unpublished manuscript). The Department of Defense Polygraph Institute, Fort Jackson, SC.
   Google Scholar
• Barry, R. J. (2009). Habituation of the orienting reflex and the development of preliminary process theory. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 92(2), 235–242. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2008.07.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Shakhar, G. (1991). Clinical judgment and decision-making in CQT-polygraphy. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science, 26(3), 232–240. doi:10.1007/BF02912515
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ben-Shakhar, G. (1977). A further study of the dichotomization theory in detection of information. Psychophysiology, 14(4), 408–413. doi:10.1111/psyp.1977.14.issue-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Shakhar, G., Bar-Hillel, M., & Kremnitzer, M. (2002). Trial by polygraph: Reconsidering the use of the guilty knowledge technique in court. Law and Human Behavior, 26(5), 527–541. doi:10.1023/A:1020204005730
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Shakhar, G., & Elaad, E. (2003). The validity of psychophysiological detection of information with the Guilty Knowledge Test: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(1), 131–151. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.1.131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Shakhar, G., & Furedy, J. J. (1990). Theories and applications in the detection of deception: A psychophysiological and international perspective. New York: Springer-Verlag Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Ben-Shakhar, G., Gamer, M., Iacono, W., Meijer, E., & Verschuere, B. (2015). Preliminary process theory does not validate the comparison question test: A comment on Palmatier and Rovner (2015). International Journal of Psychophysiology, 95(1), 16–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benussi, V. (1914). Die atmungssymptome der Lüge. Leipzig: W. Engelmann.
   Google Scholar
• Berntson, G. G., Cacioppo, J. T., & Quigley, K. S. (1991). Autonomic determinism: The modes of autonomic control, the doctrine of autonomic space, and the laws of autonomic constraint. Psychological Review, 98(4), 459–487. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.98.4.459
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berntson, G. G., Cacioppo, J. T., Binkley, P. F., Uchino, B. N., Quigley, K. S., & Fieldstone, A. (1994). Autonomic cardiac control. III. Psychological stress and cardiac response in autonomic space as revealed by pharmacological blockades. Psychophysiology, 31(6), 599–608. doi:10.1111/psyp.1994.31.issue-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhaskar, A., Subramani, S., & Ojha, R. (2013). Respiratory belt transducer constructed using a singing greeting card beeper. Advances in Physiology Education, 37(1), 117–118. doi:10.1152/advan.00166.2012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blalock, B., Cushman, B., & Nelson, R. (2009). A replication and validation study on an empirically based manual scoring system. Polygraph, 38(4), 281–288.
   Google Scholar
• Blasingame, G. D. (1998). Suggested clinical uses of polygraphy in community-based sexual offender treatment programs. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 10(1), 37–45.
   Google Scholar
• Bond, C. F., & DePaulo, B. M. (2006). Accuracy of deception judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(3), 214–234. doi:10.1207/pspr.2006.10.issue-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley, M. M. (2009). Natural selective attention: Orienting and emotion. Psychophysiology, 46(1), 1–11. doi:10.1111/psyp.2008.46.issue-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley, M. T., MacLaren, V. V., & Carle, S. B. (1996). Deception and nondeception in guilty knowledge and guilty actions polygraph tests. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(2), 153–160. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.81.2.153
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breska, A., Ben-Shakhar, G., & Gronau, N. (2012). Algorithms for detecting concealed knowledge among groups when the critical information is unavailable. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 18(3), 292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks, J. (1985). Polygraph testing: Thoughts of a skeptical legislator. American Psychologist, 40(3), 348–354. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.40.3.348
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buckley. J. P. (1980). Polygraph technology. In W. J. Curran, A. L. McGarry, & C. S. Petty (Eds.), Modern legal medicine, psychiatry and forensic sciences (pp. 1187–1207). Philadelphia, PA: Davis.
   Google Scholar
• Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., Binkley, P. F., Quigley, K. S., Uchino, B. N., & Fieldstone, A. (1994). Autonomic cardiac control. II. Noninvasive indices and basal response as revealed by autonomic blockades. Psychophysiology, 31(6), 586–598.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carte, G. E., & Carte, E. H. (1975). Police reform in the united states: The era of August Vollmer, 1905–1932. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Challoner, A. V. J., & Ramsay, C. A. (1974). A photoelectric plethysmograph for the measurement of cutaneous blood flow. Physics in Medicine and Biology, 19(3), 317–328. doi:10.1088/0031-9155/19/3/003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Committee to Review the Scientific Evidence on the Polygraph, Board on Behavioral, Cognitive, and Sensory Sciences, & National Research Council (US). Committee on National Statistics. (2003). The polygraph and lie detection. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
   Google Scholar
• Conduct of Polygraph Examinations for Personnel Security Vetting, Intelligence Community Policy Guidance 704.6. (2015, February 4). Retrieved from http://fas.org/irp/dni/icd/icpg704-6.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 U.S. 579, 113 S. Ct. 2786, 125 L. Ed. 2D 469 (1993).
   Google Scholar
• Davis, R. C. (1961). Physiological responses as a means of evaluating information. In A. D. Biderman & H. Zimmer (Eds.), The manipulation of human behavior (pp. 142–168). New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Dawson, M. E., Schell, A. M., & Filion, D. L. (2000). Handbook of psychophysiology (pp. 200–223). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dollins, A., Krapohl, D., & Dutton, D. (2000, August). Comparison of computer programs designed to evaluate psychophysiological detection of deception examinations. In Psychophysiology (Vol. 37, pp. S19–S19). Department of Defense, Fort Jackson, SC: Polygraph Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Ekman, P. (1981). Mistakes when deceiving. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 364(1), 269–278. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1981.tb34479.x
   Google Scholar
• Ekman, P. (2009). Telling lies: Clues to deceit in the marketplace, politics, and marriage (Revised ed.). London: WW Norton & Company.
   Google Scholar
• Elaad, E. (1999). A comparative study of polygraph tests and other forensic methods. In D. Canter & L. Alison (Eds.), Offender profiling series, Vol. 1: Interviewing and deception (pp. 209–231). Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing.
   Google Scholar
• Elaad, E. (2003). Is the inference rule of the “control question polygraph technique” plausible? Psychology, Crime and Law, 9(1), 37–47. doi:10.1080/10683160308143
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elaad, E. (2009). Effects of context and state of guilt on the detection of concealed crime information. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 71(3), 225–234. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.10.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elaad, E. (2011). Effects of incomplete information on the detection of concealed crime details. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 36(3), 159–171. doi:10.1007/s10484-011-9153-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elaad, E. (2013). Effects of goal-and task-oriented motivation in the guilty action test. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 88(1), 82–90. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.02.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elaad, E. (2014). Differences in the readiness of guilty and informed innocent examinees to cooperate on the guilty action test. Psychophysiology, 51(1), 70–79. doi:10.1111/psyp.2014.51.issue-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elaad, E., & Ben-Shakhar, G. (1997). Effects of item repetitions and variations on the efficiency of the Guilty Knowledge Test. Psychophysiology, 34(5), 587. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1997.tb01745.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabiani, M., Karis, D., Coles, M. G. H., & Donchin, E. (1983). P300 and recall in an incidental memory paradigm. Psychophysiology, 20(4), 439–439. 1010 Vermont Ave Nw Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20005: Soc Psychophysiol Res
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiedler, K., Schmid, J., & Stahl, T. (2002). What is the current truth about polygraph lie detection? Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 24(4), 313–324. doi:10.1207/S15324834BASP2404_6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman, J., Hastie, T., & Tibshirani, R. (2001). The elements of statistical learning (Vol. 1). Berlin: Springer. Springer series in statistics.
   Google Scholar
• Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (Court of Appeals, Dist. of Columbia) (1923).
   Google Scholar
• Furedy, J. J. (1993). The ‘control’question ‘test’(CQT) polygrapher’s dilemma: Logico-ethical considerations for psychophysiological practitioners and researchers. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 15(3), 263–267. doi:10.1016/0167-8760(93)90010-M
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furedy, J. J. (1996). Some elementary distinctions among, and comments concerning, the ‘control’question ‘test’(CQT) polygrapher’s many problems: A reply to Honts, Kircher and Raskin. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 22(1–2), 53–59. doi:10.1016/0167-8760(96)00007-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Furedy, J. J., & Liss, J. (1986). Countering confession induced by the polygraph: Of confessionals and psychological rubber hoses. Criminal LQ, 29, 91.
   Google Scholar
• Gamer, M. (2010). Does the guilty actions test allow for differentiating guilty participants from informed innocents? A re-examination. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 76(1), 19–24. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2010.01.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamer, M. (2012). Validity of the Concealed Information Test in realistic mock crime scenarios: Comment on Bradley, Malik, and Cullen. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 115(2), 427–431. doi:10.2466/22.07.27.PMS.115.5.427-431
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gamer, M., Verschuere, B., Crombez, G., & Vossel, G. (2008). Combining physiological measures in the detection of concealed information. Physiology & Behavior, 95(3), 333–340. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.06.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gannon, T. A., Wood, J. L., Pina, A., Tyler, N., Barnoux, M. L., & Vasquez, E. A. (2014). An evaluation of mandatory polygraph testing for sexual offenders in the UK. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 26, 178–203. doi:10.1177/1079063213486836
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geddes, L. A. (2002). The truth shall set you free [development of the polygraph]. Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine, IEEE, 21(3), 97–100. doi:10.1109/MEMB.2002.1016854
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Giannelli, P. C. (1997). Polygraph evidence: Post-Daubert. Hastings Law Journal, 49, 895.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ginton, A. (2013). A non-standard method for estimating accuracy of lie detection techniques demonstrated on a self-validating set of field polygraph examinations. Psychology, Crime & Law, 19(7), 577–594. doi:10.1080/1068316X.2012.656118
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ginton, A. (2014). Good intentions that fail to cope with the main point in CQT: A comment on Palmatier and Rovner (2014). International Journal of Psychophysiology, 95(1), 25–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grubin, D. (2008). The case for polygraph testing of sex offenders. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 13(2), 177–189.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grubin, D. (2010). The polygraph and forensic psychiatry. Journal of American Academic Psychiatry Law, 38, 446–451.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grubin, D., & Madsen, L. (2005). Lie detection and the polygraph: A historical review. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 16(2), 357–369. doi:10.1080/14789940412331337353
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grubin, D., Madsen, L., Parsons, S., Sosnowski, D., & Warberg, B. (2004). A prospective study of the impact of polygraphy on high-risk behaviors in adult sex offenders. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 16(3), 209–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gudjonsson, G. H. (2003). The psychology of interrogations and confessions: A handbook. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Hasselmo, M. E. (2012). How we remember: Brain mechanisms of episodic memory. Cambridge: MIT Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R., & Friedman, J. (2001) Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference and Prediction. New York: Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Hirota, A., Matsuda, I., Kobayashi, K., & Takasawa, N. (2005). Development of a portable digital polygraph system. Japanese Journal of Forensic Science and Technology, 10(1), 37–44. doi:10.3408/jafst.10.37
   Google Scholar
• Homma, I., & Umezawa, A. (2001). Respiration and emotion. In Y. Masaoka (Ed.). Tokyo: Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Honts, C. R., & Alloway, W. R. (2007). Information does not affect the validity of a comparison question test. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 12(2), 311–320. doi:10.1348/135532506X123770
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honts, C. R., & Kircher, J. C. (1994). Mental and physical countermeasures reduce the accuracy of polygraph tests. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79(2), 252–259. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.79.2.252
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Honts, C. R., Kircher, J. C., & Raskin, D. C. (1995). Polygrapher’s dilemma or psychologist’s chimaera: A reply to Furedy’s logico-ethical considerations for psychophysiological practitioners and researchers. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 20(3), 199–207. doi:10.1016/0167-8760(95)00038-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horvath, F., & Palmatier, J. J. (2008). Effect of two types of control questions and two question formats on the outcomes of polygraph examinations. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 53(4), 889–899. doi:10.1111/jfo.2008.53.issue-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hebb, J. (2012). Pre-conviction and post-conviction polygraph testing: A brief history. In D. T. Wilcox, (Ed.), The Use of the Polygraph in Assessing, Treating and Supervising Sex Offenders: A Practitioner’s Guide (pp. 31–48). Chichester UK: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Iacono, W. G. (1991). Can we determine the accuracy of polygraph tests. Advances in Psychophysiology, 4, 201–207.
   Google Scholar
• Iacono, W. G. (2008). Effective policing understanding how polygraph tests work and are used. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35(10), 1295–1308. doi:10.1177/0093854808321529
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iacono, W. G., Cerri, A. M., Patrick, C. J., & Fleming, J. A. (1992). Use of antianxiety drugs as countermeasures in the detection of guilty knowledge. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(1), 60–64. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.77.1.60
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iacono, W. G., & Lykken, D. T. (1997). The validity of the lie detector: Two surveys of scientific opinion. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(3), 426–433. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.3.426
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Isshiki, N., & Snidecor, J. C. (1965). Air intake and usage in esophageal speech. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 59(2–6), 559–574. doi:10.3109/00016486509124587
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnson, M. B. (2003). The interrogation of Michael Crowe: A film review focused on education and training. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 21(3), 71–79.
   Google Scholar
• Johnson, M. M., & Rosenfeld, J. P. (1992). Oddball-evoked P300-based method of deception detection in the laboratory II: Utilization of non-selective activation of relevant knowledge. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 12(3), 289–306. doi:10.1016/0167-8760(92)90067-L
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones, E. E., & Sigall, H. (1971). The bogus pipeline: A new paradigm for measuring affect and attitude. Psychological Bulletin, 76(5), 349–364. doi:10.1037/h0031617
   Google Scholar
• Kasprowicz, A. L., Manuck, S. B., Malkoff, S. B., & Krantz, D. S. (1990). Individual differences in behaviorally evoked cardiovascular response: Temporal stability and hemodynamic patterning. Psychophysiology, 27(6), 605–619. doi:10.1111/psyp.1990.27.issue-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kassin, S. M., & Gudjonsson, G. H. (2004). The psychology of confessions a review of the literature and issues. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5(2), 33–67. doi:10.1111/j.1529-1006.2004.00016.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keeler, L. (1930). Deception tests and the lie detector. International Association for Identification Proceedings, 16, 186–193.
   Google Scholar
• Kircher, J. C., Horowitz, S. W., & Raskin, D. C. (1988). Meta-analysis of mock crime studies of the control question polygraph technique. Law and Human Behavior, 12(1), 79–90. doi:10.1007/BF01064275
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kircher, J. C., & Raskin, D. C. (2002). Computer methods for the psychophysiological detection of deception. In M. Kleiner, (Ed.), Handbook of polygraph testing (pp. 287–326). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kleiner, M. (Ed.). (2002). Handbook of polygraph testing (pp. 287–326). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kleinmuntz, B., & Szucko, J. J. (1984). Lie detection in ancient and modern times: A call for contemporary scientific study. American Psychologist, 39(7), 766–776. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.39.7.766
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krapohl, D., & Sturm, S. (2002). Terminology reference for the sceince of psychophysiological detection of deception. Polygraph, 31(3), 154–239.
   Google Scholar
• Krapohl, D., & McManus, B. (1999). An objective method for manually scoring polygraph data. Polygraph, 28(1), 209–222.
   Google Scholar
• Krapohl, D. J., McCloughan, J. B., & Senter, S. M. (2009). How to use the Concealed Information Test. Polygraph, 38(1), 34–49.
   Google Scholar
• Landis, E. M. (1925). Conjugation of paramecium multimicronucleata, powers and mitchell. Journal of Morphology, 40(1), 111–167. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1097-4687
   Google Scholar
• Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1990). Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex. Psychological Review, 97, 377–395. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.97.3.377
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larson, J. A., Haney, G. W., & Keeler, L. (1932). Lying and its detection: A study of deception and deception tests (p. 99). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lykken, D. T. (1959). The GSR in the detection of guilt. Journal of Applied Psychology, 43(6), 385–388. doi:10.1037/h0046060
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lykken, D. T. (1974). Psychology and the lie detector industry. American Psychologist, 29(10), 725–739. doi:10.1037/h0037441
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lykken, D. T. (1975). Right way to use a lie detector. Psychology Today, 8(10), 56.
   Google Scholar
• Lykken, D. T. (1998). A tremor in the blood: Uses and abuses of lie detection (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Plenum.
   Google Scholar
• Mackenzie, J. (1908). The ink polygraph. British Medical Journal, 1(2476), 1411. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.2476.1411
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MacLaren, V. V. (2001). A qualitative review of the Guilty Knowledge Test. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(4), 674–683. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.4.674
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Madsen, L., Parsons, S., & Grubin, D. (2004). A preliminary study of the contribution of periodic polygraph testing to the treatment and supervision of sex offenders. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 15(4), 682–695.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mangan, D. J., Armitage, T. E., & Adams, G. C. (2008). Rebuttal to objections by Iacono and Verschuere et al. Physiology & Behavior, 95(1–2), 29–31. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.06.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann, S., Vrij, A., & Bull, R. (2004). Detecting true lies: Police officers’ ability to detect suspects’ lies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1), 137–149. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.1.137
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsuda, I., Hirota, A., Ogawa, T., Takasawa, N., & Shigemasu, K. (2009). Within‐individual discrimination on the Concealed Information Test using dynamic mixture modeling. Psychophysiology, 46(2), 439–449.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matte, J. A. (1996). Forensic psychophysiology using the polygraph: Scientific truth verification, lie detection. Preston: JAM Publications.
   Google Scholar
• McCormick, C. T. (1927). Charges on presumptions and burden of proof. NCL Reviews, 5, 291.
   Google Scholar
• McGrath, R. J., Cumming, G. F., Burchard, B. L., Zeoli, S., & Ellerby, L. (2009). Current practices and emerging trends in sexual abuser management. Brandon, VT: The Safer Society Press.
   Google Scholar
• Meaney, J. R. (1995). From Frye to Daubert: Is a pattern unfolding?. Jurimetrics, 35(2), 191–199.
   Google Scholar
• Meijer, E. H., Bente, G., Ben-Shakhar, G., & Schumacher, A. (2012). Detecting concealed information from groups using a dynamic questioning approach: simultaneous skin conductance measurement and immediate feedback. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 68.
   Google Scholar
• Meijer, E. H., Smulders, F. T., Johnston, J. E., & Merckelbach, H. L. (2007). Combining skin conductance and forced choice in the detection of concealed information. Psychophysiology, 44(5), 814–822. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00543.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moscovitch, M., Rosenbaum, R. S., Gilboa, A., Addis, D. R., Westmacott, R., Grady, C., & Nadel, L. (2005). Functional neuroanatomy of remote episodic, semantic and spatial memory: A unified account based on multiple trace theory. Journal of Anatomy, 207(1), 35–66. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00421.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson, R., Krapohl, D. J., & Handler, M. (2008). Brute force comparison: A Monte Carlo study of the objective scoring system version 3 (OSS-3) and human polygraph scorers. Polygraph, 37, 185–215.
   Google Scholar
• O’Gorman, J. G. (1979). The orientation reflex: Novelty or significance detector? Psychophysiology, 16, 253–262. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1979.tb02988.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Toole, D., Yuille, J. C., Patrick, C. J., & Iacono, W. G. (1994). Alcohol and the physiological detection of deception: Arousal and memory influences. Psychophysiology, 31(3), 253–263. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1994.tb02214.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ogawa, T., Matsuda, I., & Tsuneoka, M. (2014). The comparison question test versus the Concealed Information Test? That was the question in Japan: A comment on Palmatier and Rovner (2014). International Journal of Psychophysiology, 95(1), 29–30.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsen, D. E., Harris, J. C., Capps, M. H., & Ansley, N. (1997). Computerized polygraph scoring system. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 42, 61–70.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orne, M. T., Thackray, R. I., & Paskewitz, D. A. (1972). On the detection of deception: A model for the study of the physiological effects of psychological stimuli. In N. S. Greenfield & R. A. Sternbach (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (pp. 743–785). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
   Google Scholar
• Osugi, A. (2011). 14 Daily application of the Concealed Information Test: Japan. In B. Verschuere, G. Ben Shakhar, & E. Meijer, (Eds.), Memory Detection: Theory and application of the concealed information test (pp. 63-89) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Palmatier, J. J., & Rovner, L. (2015a). Credibility assessment: Preliminary process theory, the polygraph process, and construct validity. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 95(1), 3–13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmatier, J. J., & Rovner, L. (2015b). Rejoinder to commentary on Palmatier and Rovner (2014): Credibility Assessment: Preliminary Process Theory, the Polygraph Process, and Construct Validity. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 95(1), 31–34. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.11.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patrick, C. J., & Iacono, W. G. (1991). Validity of the control question polygraph test: The problem of sampling bias. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(2), 229–238. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.76.2.229
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Podlesney, J. A. (1995). A lack of operable case facts restricts applicability of the Guilty Knowledge Deception Detection Method in FBI criminal investigations ( FBI Technical Report). Quantico, VA: FBI.
   Google Scholar
• Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2000). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation. Development and Psychopathology, 12(3), 427–441. doi:10.1017/S0954579400003096
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prokasy, W.F & Raskin, D.C. (1973). Electrodermal Activity in Psychological Research. New York: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Raskin, D. C. (1987). Methodological issues in estimating polygraph accuracy in field applications. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 19(4), 389–404. doi:10.1037/h0079999
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raskin, D. C., & Honts, C. R. (1987). The comparison question test. Handbook of polygraph testing, 1–47.
   Google Scholar
• Raskin, D. C., & Kircher, J. C. (2014). Validity of polygraph techniques and decision methods. In D. C. Raskin, C. R. Honts, & J. C. Kircher (Eds.), Credibility assessment, scientific research and applications (pp. 65–132). London: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Raskin, D. C., Kircher, J. C., Horowitz, S. W., & Honts, C. R. (1989). Recent laboratory and field research on polygraph techniques. In J. C. Yuille (Ed.), Credibility Assessment (pp. 1–24). Deventer, the Netherlands: Kluwer.
   Google Scholar
• Reid, J. E. (1947). A revised questioning technique in liedetection tests. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 37, 542–547.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid, J. E., & Inbau, F. E. (1977). Truth and deception: The polygraph (lie-detector) technique. Williams & Wilkins Company. Reid, J. E. (1947). A revised questioning technique in liedetection tests. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 37, 542–547.
   Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld, J. P., Angell, A., Johnson, M., & Qian, J. (1991). An ERP-based, control-question lie detector analog: Algorithms for discriminating effects within individuals’ average waveforms. Psychophysiology, 38, 319–335. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1991.tb02202.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld, J. P., Labkovsky, E., Winograd, M., Lui, M. A., Vandenboom, C., & Chedid, E. (2008). The Complex Trial Protocol (CTP): A new, countermeasure-resistant, accurate P300-based method for detection of concealed information. Psychophysiology, 45, 906–919. doi:10.1111/psyp.2008.45.issue-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenfeld, J. P., Soskins, M., Bosh, G., & Ryan, A. (2004). Simple, effective countermeasures to P300‐based tests of detection of concealed information. Psychophysiology, 41(2), 205–219. doi:10.1111/psyp.2004.41.issue-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saxe, L. (1991). Science and the CQT polygraph. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science, 26(3), 223–231. doi:10.1007/BF02912514
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Seymour, T. L., Seifert, C. M., Shafto, M. G., & Mosmann, A. L. (2000). Using response time measures to assess” guilty knowledge”. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(1), 30–37. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.85.1.30
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherwood, A., Dolan, C. A., & Light, K. C. (1990). Hemodynamics of blood pressure responses during active and passive coping. Psychophysiology, 27(6), 656–668. doi:10.1111/psyp.1990.27.issue-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon, R. J. (1993). Adopting a military approach to polygraph evidence admissibility: Why federal evidentiary protections will suffice. Texas Technical Law Reviews, 25, 1055.
   Google Scholar
• Slowik, S. M., & Buckley, J. P. (1975). Relative accuracy of polygraph examiner diagnosis of respiration, blood-pressure, and GSR recordings. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 3(3), 305–309.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sokolov, E. N. (1963). Perception and the conditioned reflex. New York, NY: Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Sokolov, E. N. (1966). Orienting reflex as information regulator. Psychological Research in the USSR, 1, 334–360.
   Google Scholar
• Stern, R. M., Ray, W. J., & Quigley, K. S. (2001). Psychophysiological recording. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Summers, W. G. (1936). Guilt distinguished from complicity. Psychological Bulletin, 33(9), 787.
   Google Scholar
• The British Psychology Society (2004). A review of the current scientific status and fields of application of Polygraphic Deception Detection. Final report from the BPS Working Party. Leicester, UK: British Psychological Society
   Google Scholar
• Tourangeau, R., Smith, T. W., & Rasinski, K. A. (1997). Motivation to report sensitive behaviors on surveys: Evidence from a Bogus pipeline experiment1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27(3), 209–222. [09:15:46]. doi:10.1111/jasp.1997.27.issue-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, M. J., & van Schalkwyk, J. M. (2008). Blood pressure variability causes spurious identification of hypertension in clinical studies: A computer simulation study. American Journal of Hypertension, 21(1), 85–91. doi:10.1038/ajh.2007.25
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. (1983). Scientific validity of polygraph testing (OTA-TM-H-15). Washington, DC: GPO.
   Google Scholar
• United States Congress, House Committee on Government Operations, Subcommittee on Government Information and Foreign Operations. (1965). Use of polygraphs as ‘lie detectors’ by the federal government (House Report No. 198). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
   Google Scholar
• US Congress. (1983). Scientific validity of polygraph testing: A research review and evaluation –A technical memorandum. Washington, DC: Office of Technology Assessment, OTATM- H-15.
   Google Scholar
• Varga, M., Visu-Petra, G., Miclea, M., & Buş, I. (2014). The RT-based Concealed Information Test: An overview of current research and future perspectives. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 127, 681–685. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.335
   Google Scholar
• Verschuere, B., Crombez, G., De Clercq, A., & Koster, E. H. (2004). Autonomic and behavioral responding to concealed information: Differentiating orienting and defensive responses. Psychophysiology, 41(3), 461–466. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.00167.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vrij, A. (2000). Detecting lies and deceit: The psychology of lying and the implications for professional practice. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Vrij, A. (2014). The protection of innocent suspects: A comment on Palmatier and Rovner (2014). International Journal of Psychophysiology, 95(1), 20–21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waid, W. M., & Orne, M. T. (1982). Reduced electrodermal response to conflict, failure to inhibit dominant behaviors, and delinquency proneness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(4), 769–774. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.43.4.769
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waid, W. M., Wilson, S. K., & Orne, M. T. (1981). Cross-modal physiological effects of electrodermal lability in the detection of deception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(6), 1118–1125. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.40.6.1118
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walsorth, M. T. (1882). Twenty questions: A short treatise on the game. New York: H. Holt & Company.
   Google Scholar
• Webb, A. K., Honts, C. R., Kircher, J. C., Bernhardt, P., & Cook, A. E. (2009). Effectiveness of pupil diameter in a probable lie comparison question test for deception. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 14(2), 279–292. doi:10.1348/135532508X398602
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamamura, T., & Miyata, Y. (1990). Development of the polygraph technique in Japan for detection of deception. Forensic Science International, 44(2–3), 257–271. doi:10.1016/0379-0738(90)90256-X
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar