Dividing “Above” and “Below”: Constructing Territory for Ecosystem Service Conservation in the Ecuadorian Highlands

References

• Abramovitz, J. N. 1994. Biodiversity conservation and sustainable use: USAID program overview. Washington, DC: The Environment Center, United States Agency for International Development.
   Google Scholar
• Adams, W. M., I. D. Hodge, and L. Sandbrook. 2014. New spaces for nature: The re-territorialization of biodiversity conservation under neoliberalism in the UK. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 39 (4):574–88. doi: 10.1111/tran.12050.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agrawal, A. 2005. Environmentality. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Benitez, S. P. 2003. The Condor Bioreserve in Ecuador. Mountain Research and Development 23 (3):212–14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birchard, B. 2005. Nature’s keepers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
   Google Scholar
• Bluwstein, J. 2017. Creating ecotourism territories: Environmentalities in Tanzania’s community-based conservation. Geoforum 83:101–13. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2017.04.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boelens, R. 2014. Cultural politics and the hydrosocial cycle: Water, power and identity in the Andean highlands. Geoforum 57:234–47. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.02.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boelens, R., J. Hoogesteger, and M. Baud. 2015. Water reform governmentailty in Ecuador: Neoliberalism, centralization, and the restraining of polycentric authority and community rule-making. Geoforum 61:281–91. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.07.005.
   Google Scholar
• Boelens, R., J. Hoogesteger, and J. C. Rodriguez de Francisco. 2014. Commoditizing water territories: The clash between Andean water rights cultures and payment for environmental services policies. Capitalism Nature Socialism 25 (3):84–102. doi: 10.1080/10455752.2013.876867.
   Google Scholar
• Brockington, D. 2011. Ecosystem services and fictitious commodities. Environmental Conservation 38 (4):367–69. doi: 10.1017/S0376892911000531.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, M., and C. Stem. 2005. Lessons learned learned across several sites using watershed valuation as a conservation strategy. Report prepared for the Nature Conservancy Foundations of Success.
   Google Scholar
• Büscher, B. 2012. Payments for ecosystem services as neoliberal conservation: (Reinterpreting) evidence from the Maloti–Drakensberg, South Africa. Conservation and Society 10 (1):29–41. doi: 10.4103/0972-4923.92190.
   Google Scholar
• Büscher, B. 2013. Nature on the move: The value and circulation of liquid nature and the emergence of fictitious conservation. New Proposals: Journal of Marxism and Interdisciplinary Inquiry 6 (1–2):20–36.
   Google Scholar
• Büscher, B., S. Sullivan, K. Neves, J. Igoe, and D. Brockington. 2012. Towards a synthesized critique of neoliberal biodiversity conservation. Capitalism Nature Socialism 23 (2):4–30. doi: 10.1080/10455752.2012.674149.
   Google Scholar
• Buytaert, W., R. Célleri, B. De Bièvre, F. Cisneros, G. Wyseure, J. Deckers, and R. Hofstede. 2006. Human impact on the hydrology of the Andean páramos. Earth-Science Reviews 79 (1–2):53–72. doi: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2006.06.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiriboga, M., and C. Chehab. 2007. The role of institutions in rural territories that have undergone land reform. Discussion Paper Series No. 16. Research Programme Consortium on Improving Institutions from Pro-Poor Growth, Manchester, UK.
   Google Scholar
• Clark, T. W., and J. Padwe. 2004. The Ecuadorian Condor Bioreserve initiative. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 18 (2–3):297–324. doi: 10.1300/J091v18n02_14.
   Google Scholar
• Corbera, E., N. Kosoy, and M. Martinez-Tuna. 2007. Equity implications of marketing ecosystem services in protects areas and rural communities: Case studies from Meso-America. Global Environmental Change 17 (3–4):365–80. doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.12.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Bievre, B., V. Iniguez, and W. Buytaert. 2011. Hidrología del Páramo [Hydrology of the Páramo]. In Páramo: Paisaje estudiado, habitado, manejado e institucionalizado, ed. P. Mena Vasconez, A. Castillo, S. Flores, R. Hofstede, C. Josse, S. Lasso, G. Medina, N. Ochoa, and D. Ortiz, 81–97. Quito, Ecuador: Abya-Yala.
   Google Scholar
• Delaney, D. 2005. Entering the territory of territory. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Dempsey, J. 2016. Enterprising nature: Economics, markets and finance in global biodiversity politics. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Egoh, B., B. Reyers, M. Rouget, D. M. Richardson, D. C. Le Maitre, and A. S. van Jaarsveld. 2008. Mapping ecosystem services for planning and management. Agriculture Ecosystems & Environment 127 (1–2):135–40. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2008.03.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eldon, S. 2013. How should we do the history of territory? Territory, Politics, Governance 1 (1):5–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellenberg, H. 1979. Man’s influence on tropical mountain ecosystems in South America. The Journal of Ecology 67 (2):401–16. doi: 10.2307/2259105.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Escandón, S. 2010. Programa de Vigilancia y Monitoreo: La comunidad trabaja en favor de la naturaleza [Program of surveillance and control: The community works in favor of natu]. Agua-a-Fondo, January 10.
   Google Scholar
• Escandón, S., and O. Rojas. 2008. Guardaparques, gestores de la protección del agua [Park guards, managers of water protection]. Quito, Ecuador: Fondo para la Proteccion del Agua.
   Google Scholar
• Farley, K. A., W. G. Anderson, L. L. H. Bremer, and P. Carol. 2011. Compensation for ecosystem services: An evaluation of efforts to achieve conservation and development in Ecuadorian paramo grasslands. Environmental Conservation 38 (4):393–405. doi: 10.1017/S037689291100049X.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farley, K. A., and L. L. Bremer. 2017. “Water is life”: Local perceptions of paramo grasslands and land management strategies associated with payment for ecosystem services. Annals of the American Association of Geographers 107 (2):371–81. doi: 10.1080/24694452.2016.1254020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fletcher, R. 2010. Neoliberal environmentality: Towards a poststructuralist political ecology of the conservation debate. Conservation and Society 8 (3):171–81. doi: 10.4103/0972-4923.73806.
   Google Scholar
• Fletcher, R. 2017. Environmentality unbound: Multiple governmentalities in environmental politics. Geoforum 85:311–15.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fondo para la Proteccion del Agua. 2010. Programa de Vigilancia y Monitoreo [Surveillance and Monitoring Program]. Pamphlet produced by FONAG and USAID, Quito, Ecuador.
   Google Scholar
• Fondo para la Proteccion del Agua. 2014a. FONAG Rendición de Cuentas 2013 [Accountability report], ed. N. Puente. Quito, Ecuador: Fondo para la Proteccion del Agua.
   Google Scholar
• Fondo para la Proteccion del Agua. 2014b. Guardapáramos en capacitación permanente [Páramo Guards in ongoing training]. Accessed August 27, 2014. http://www.fonag.org.ec/inicio/noticias/28-noticias_/31-guardap%C3%A1ramos-en-capacitaci%C3%B3n-permanente.html.
   Google Scholar
• Fondo para la Proteccion del Agua. 2014c. Nuestros programas [Our programs]. Accessed March 3, 2014. http://www.fonag.org.ec/inicio/en/que-hacemos/programas.html.
   Google Scholar
• Ford, M. 2004. Environmental education in the Condor Bioreserve. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 18 (2–3):257–75. doi: 10.1300/J091v18n02_12.
   Google Scholar
• Foucault, M. 1995. Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. New York: Penguin Social Sciences.
   Google Scholar
• Foucault, M. 2008. The birth of biopolitics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
   Google Scholar
• Gabriel, N. 2011. The work that parks do: Towards an urban environmentality. Social & Cultural Geography 12 (2):123–41. doi: 10.1080/14649365.2011.545139.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelles, P. 1999. Water and power in highland Peru. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Goldman, M. 2001. The birth of a discipline: Producing authoritative green knowledge, World Bank-style. Ethnography 2 (2):191–217. doi: 10.1177/14661380122230894.
   Google Scholar
• Goldman, M. 2005. Imperial nature: The World Bank and the making of green neoliberalism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Goldman, R. L., H. Tallis, P. Kareiva, and G. C. Daily. 2008. Field evidence that ecosystem service projects support biodiversity and diversify options. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (27):9445–48. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0800208105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez, A. M., and A. S. Martin. 2007. Park guards in the conservation of protected areas. Innovations in conservation series. Parks in Peril Program. Arlington, VA: The Nature Conservancy.
   Google Scholar
• Haraway, D. 2008. When species meet. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
   Google Scholar
• Harris, L. M., and M. C. Roa-Garcia. 2013. Recent waves of water governance: Constitutional reform and resistance to neoliberalization in Latin America (1990–2012). Geoforum 50:20–30. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.07.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hess, C. G. 1990. “Moving up-moving down”: Agro-pastoral land-use patterns in the Ecuadorian Paramos. Mountain Research and Development 10 (4):333–42. doi: 10.2307/3673495.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Himley, M. 2009. Nature conservation, rural livelihoods, and territorial control in Andean Ecuador. Geoforum 40 (5):832–42. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2009.06.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jack, B. K., C. Kousky, and K. R. E. Sims. 2008. Designing payments for ecosystem services: Lessons from previous experience with incentive-based mechanisms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (28):9465–70. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0705503104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joslin, A. J. 2019. Unpacking “success”: Applying local perceptions to interpret influences of water fund payments for ecosystem services in the Ecuadorian Andes. Society & Natural Resources 32 (6):617–37. doi: 10.1080/08941920.2018.1559379.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joslin, A. J., and W. E. Jepson. 2018. Territory and authority of water fund payments for ecosystem services in Ecuador’s Andes. Geoforum 91:10–20. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2018.02.016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kauffman, C. M. 2014. Financing watershed conservation: Lessons from Ecuador’s evolving water trust funds. Agricultural Water Management 145:39–49. doi: 10.1016/j.agwat.2013.09.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kauffman, C. M. 2017. Grassroots global governance: Local watershed management experiments and the evolution of sustainable development. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Knapp, G. 1991. Andean ecology: Adaptive dynamics in Ecuador. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
   Google Scholar
• Laegaard, S. 1992. Influence of fire in the grass páramo vegetation of Ecuador. In Páramo: An Andean ecosystem under human influence, ed. H. Balslev and J. L. Luteyn, 151–70. London: Academic.
   Google Scholar
• Leach, M., J. Fairhead, and J. Fraser. 2012. Green grabs and biochar: Revaluing African soils and farming in the new carbon economy. Journal of Peasant Studies 39 (2):285–307. doi: 10.1080/03066150.2012.658042.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leon-Yanez, S. 2011. La flora de los páramos Ecuatorianos [Vegetation in the Ecuadorian páramos]. In Páramo: Paisaje estudiado, habitado, manejado, e instatucionalizado, ed. P. Mena Vasconez, A. Castillo, S. Flores, R. Hofstede, C. Josse, S. Lasso, G. Medina, N. Ochoa, and D. Ortiz, 25–39. Quito, Ecuador: Abya-Yala.
   Google Scholar
• Lewis, T. 2000. Transnational conservation movement organizations: Shaping the protected area systems of less developed countries. Mobilization: An International Quarterly 5 (1):103–21.
   Google Scholar
• Luteyn, J. L. 1992. Páramos: Why study them? In Páramo: An Andean ecosystem under human pressure, ed. H. Balslev and J. L. Luteyn, 1–15. London: Academic.
   Google Scholar
• Martinez, L. 2011. La experiencia de manejo de los paramos en la Reserva Ecologica Cayambe-Coca [The experience of managing the páramos in the Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve]. In Paramo: Paisaje estudiado, habitado, manejado e institucionalizado, ed. P. Mena Vasconez, A. Castillo, S. Flores, R. Hofstede, C. Josse, S. Lasso, G. Medina, N. Ochoa, and D. Ortiz, 357–60. Quito, Ecuador: Abya-Yala.
   Google Scholar
• Maxwell, K. 2011. Beyond verticality: Fuelscape politics and practices in the Andes. Human Ecology 39 (4):465–78. doi: 10.1007/s10745-011-9393-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayer, E. 2002. The articulated peasant: Household economies in the Andes. Boulder, CO: Westview.
   Google Scholar
• Muradian, R. 2013. Payments for ecosystem services as incentives for collective action. Society & Natural Resources 26:1155–69. doi: 10.1080/08941920.2013.820816.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muradian, R., M. Arsel, L. Pellegrini, F. Adaman, B. Aguilar, B. Agarwal, E. Corbera, D. Ezzine de Blas, J. Farley, G. Froger, et al. 2013. Payments for ecosystem services and the fatal attraction of win–win solutions. Conservation Letters 6 (4):274–79. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-263X.2012.00309.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murra, J. V. 2002. El “control vertical” de un máximo de pisos ecológicos en la economía de las sociedades andinas—1972 [The vertical control of a maximum of ecological tiers in the economy of Andean societies]. In El mundo andino: Población, medio ambiente, y economía, 85–126. Lima, Peru: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
   Google Scholar
• Nail, T. 2016. Theory of the border. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nyce, C. M. 2004. The decentralization of protected area management in Ecuador. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 18 (2–3):65–90. doi: 10.1300/J091v18n02_04.
   Google Scholar
• Podwojewski, P., and J. Poulenard. 2011. Los suelos de los páramos de Ecuador [The soils of Ecuador’s páramos]. In Páramo: Paisaje estudiado, habitado, manejado e institucionalizado, ed. P. Mena Vasconez, A. Castillo, S. Flores, R. Hofstede, C. Josse, S. Lasso, G. Medina, N. Ochoa, and D. Ortiz, 63–80. Quito, Ecuador: Abya-Yala.
   Google Scholar
• Poppe, J. 2012. Conservation’s ambiguities: Rangers on the periphery of the W Park, Burkina Faso. Conservation and Society 10 (4):330–43. doi: 10.4103/0972-4923.105538.
   Google Scholar
• Ramón, G. 2009. Conocimiento y prácticas ancestrales [Knowledge and ancestral practices]. In Gente y ambiente de páramo: Realidades y perspectivas en el Ecuador, ed. J. S. Martínez, 13–22. Quito, Ecuador: Ecociencia-Abya Yala.
   Google Scholar
• Robbins, P. 2000. The rotten institution: Corruption in natural resource management. Political Geography 19 (4):423–43. doi: 10.1016/S0962-6298(99)00087-6.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson, M. M. 2006. The nature that capital can see: Science, state and market in the commodification of ecosystem services. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 24 (3):367–87. doi: 10.1068/d3304.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson, M. M. 2007. Discovering price in all the wrong places: The work of commodity definition and price under neoliberal environmental policy. Antipode 39 (3):500–526.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodríguez-de-Francisco, J. C., and R. Boelens. 2014. Payment for environmental services and power in the Chamachán watershed in Ecuador. Human Organization 73 (4):351–62. doi: 10.17730/humo.73.4.b680w75u27527061.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodríguez-de-Francisco, J. C., J. Budds, and R. Boelens. 2013. Payments for environmental services and unequal resource control in Pimampiro, Ecuador. Society & Natural Resources 26 (10):1217–33. doi: 10.1080/08941920.2013.825037.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose-Redwood, R. 2012. With numbers in place: Security, territory, and the production of calculable space. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 102 (2):295–319.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roth, R. J. 2008. “Fixing” the forest: The spatiality of conservation conflict in Thailand. Annals Association of American Geography 98 (2):373–391.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutherford, S. 2007. Green governmentality: Insights and opportunities in the study of nature’s rule. Progress in Human Geography 31 (3):291–307. doi: 10.1177/0309132507077080.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, J. C. 1998. Seeing like a state. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sodikoff, G. 2009. The low-wage conservationist: Biodiversity and perversities of value in Madagascar. American Anthropologist 111 (4):443–55. doi: 10.1111/j.1548-1433.2009.01154.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tallis, H., P. Kareiva, M. Marvier, and A. Chang. 2008. An ecosystem services framework to support both practical conservation and economic development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (28):9457–64. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0705797105.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ufelder, W. H. 1998. The community park ranger program in the Cayambe-Coca Ecological Reserve. International Journal of Wilderness 4 (2):39–42.
   Google Scholar
• United States Agency for International Development. 2011. Economic sustainability within biodiversity conservation programs in Ecuador (1990–2010). Washington, DC: United States Agency for International Development.
   Google Scholar
• Valdivia, G. 2015. Eco-governmentality. In The Routledge handbook of political ecology, ed. T. Perreault, G. Bridge, and J. McCarthy, 467–80. London and New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Valdivia, G., W. Wolford, and F. Lu. 2014. Border crossings: New geographies of protection and production in the Galápagos Islands. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 104 (3):686–701. doi: 10.1080/00045608.2014.892390.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valladares, C., and R. Boelens. 2019. Mining for mother earth: Governmentalities, sacred waters and nature’s rights in Ecuador. Geoforum 100:68–79. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2019.02.009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandergeest, P., and N. L. Peluso. 1995. Territorialization and state power in Thailand. Theory and Society 24 (3):385–426. doi: 10.1007/BF00993352.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veiga, F., A. Calvache, S. P. Benitez, J. León, and A. Ramos. 2015. Water funds as a tool for urban water provision and watershed conservation in Latin America. In Water and cities in Latin America: Challenges for sustainable development, ed. I. Aguilar-Barajas, J. Malhknecht, J. Kaledin, M. Kjellen, and A. Mejia-Betancourt, 235–55. London: Earthscan.
   Google Scholar
• Wunder, S. 2005. Payments for environmental services: Some nuts and bolts. CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 42. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia.
   Google Scholar
• Zimmerer, K. S. 1999. Overlapping patchworks of mountain agriculture in Peru and Bolivia. Toward a regional-global landscape model. Human Ecology 27 (1):135–65.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar