1,144
Views
9
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Individual, task, and environmental influences on balance recovery: a narrative review of the literature and implications for preventing occupational falls

ORCID Icon, & ORCID Icon
Pages 91-118 | Received 20 Oct 2018, Accepted 17 Jun 2019, Published online: 08 Aug 2019

References

  • Adamo, D. E., Alexander, N. B., & Brown, S. H. (2009). The influence of age and physical activity on upper limb proprioceptive ability. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 17(3), 272–293.
  • Adamo, D. E., Martin, B. J., & Brown, S. H. (2007). Age-related differences in upper-limb proprioceptive acuity. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 104(3_suppl), 1297–1309. doi:10.2466/PMS.104.3.1297-1309
  • Akram, S. B., & Frank, J. S. (2009). Cognitive demands of postural control during continuous rotational perturbations of the support surface. Gait & Posture, 29(1), 86–90. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2008.07.006
  • Akram, S. B., Frank, J. S., Patla, A. E., & Allum, J. H. (2008). Balance control during continuous rotational perturbations of the support surface. Gait & Posture, 27(3), 393–398. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2007.05.006
  • Allin, L. J., Wu, X., Nussbaum, M. A., & Madigan, M. L. (2016). Falls resulting from a laboratory-induced slip occur at a higher rate among individuals who are obese. Journal of Biomechanics, 49(5), 678–683. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.01.018
  • Allin, L. J., Nussbaum, M. A., & Madigan, M. L. (2019). Two novel slip training methods improve the likelihood of recovering balance after a laboratory-induced slip. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 35(1), 37–43. doi:10.1123/jab.2018-0076
  • Association of Workers Compensations Boards of Canada. (2019). 2017 Lost Time Claims in Canada. Retrieved from http://awcbc.org/?page_id=14
  • Bateni, H. A., Zecevic, A., McIlroy, W. E., & Maki, B. E. (2004). Resolving conflicts in task demands during balance recovery: Does holding an object inhibit compensatory grasping? Experimental Brain Research, 157(1), 49–58. doi:10.1007/s00221-003-1815-8
  • Bentley, T. A., & Haslam, R. A. (2001). Identification of risk factors and countermeasures for slip, trip and fall accidents during the delivery of mail. Applied Ergonomics, 32(2), 127–134.
  • Beschorner, K. E., Albert, D. L., & Redfern, M. S. (2016). Required coefficient of friction during level walking is predictive of slipping. Gait & Posture, 48, 256–260. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2016.06.003
  • Bhatt, T., & Pai, Y. C. (2009). Prevention of slip-related backward balance loss: The effect of session intensity and frequency on long-term retention. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 90(1), 34–42. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2008.06.021
  • Bhatt, T., Wang, E., & Pai, Y. C. (2006). Retention of adaptive control over varying intervals: Prevention of slip-induced backward balance loss during gait. Journal of Neurophysiology, 95(5), 2913–2922. doi:10.1152/jn.01211.2005
  • Bhatt, T., Yang, F., & Pai, Y. C. (2012). Learning to resist gait slip falls: Long-term retention in community-dwelling older adults. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 93(4), 557–564. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2011.10.027
  • Bieryla, K. A., Madigan, M. L., & Nussbaum, M. A. (2007). Practicing recovery from a simulated trip improves recovery kinematics after an actual trip. Gait & Posture, 26(2), 208–213. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2006.09.010
  • Birtane, M., & Tuna, H. (2004). The evaluation of plantar pressure distribution in obese and non-obese adults. Clinical Biomechanics, 19(10), 1055–1059.
  • Bloem, B. R., Allum, J. H., Carpenter, M. G., & Honegger, F. (2000). Is lower leg proprioception essential for triggering human automatic postural responses? Experimental Brain Research, 130(3), 375–391. doi:10.1007/s002219900259
  • Bloem, B., Allum, J. H., Carpenter, M., Verschuuren, J. J., & Honegger, F. (2002). Triggering of balance corrections and compensatory strategies in a patient with total leg proprioceptive loss. Experimental Brain Research, 142(1), 91–107. doi:10.1007/s00221-001-0926-3
  • Bolton, D. A. (2015). The role of the cerebral cortex in postural responses to externally induced perturbations. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 57, 142–155. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.08.014
  • Brauer, S. G., Woollacott, M., & Shumway-Cook, A. (2002). The influence of a concurrent cognitive task on the compensatory stepping response to a perturbation in balance-impaired and healthy elders. Gait and Posture, 15(1), 83–93. doi:10.1016/S0966-6362(01)00163-1
  • Camernik, J., Potocanac, Z., Peternel, L., & Babic, J. (2016). Holding a handle for balance during continuous postural perturbations – Immediate and transitionary effects on whole body posture. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10, 1–8. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00486
  • Cham, R., & Redfern, M. S. (2001). Load carrying and corrective responses to slip events. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. 45, p. 9620966. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications. doi:10.1177/154193120104501437
  • Cham, R., & Redfern, M. S. (2002). Heel contact dynamics during slip events on level and inclined surfaces. Safety Science, 40(7–8), 559–576. doi:10.1016/S0925-7535(01)00059-5
  • Chander, H., Wade, C., & Garner, J. C. (2015). The influence of occupational footwear on dynamic balance perturbations. Footwear Science, 7(2), 115–126. doi:10.1080/19424280.2015.1031193
  • Chang, W. R., Leclercq, S., Lockhart, T. E., & Haslam, R. (2016). State of science: Occupational slips, trips and falls on the same level. Ergonomics, 59(7), 861–883. doi:10.1080/00140139.2016.1157214
  • Cheng, K. B., Huang, Y.-C., & Kuo, S.-Y. (2014). Effect of arm swing on single-step balance recovery. Human Movement Science, 38, 173–184. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2014.08.011
  • Cheng, K. C., McKay, S. M., King, E. C., & Maki, B. E. (2012). Does aging impair the capacity to use stored visuospatial information or online visual control to guide reach-to-grasp reactions evoked by unpredictable balance perturbation? Journal of Gerontology: Medical Sciences, 67(11), 1238–1245.
  • Cheng, K. C., Pratt, J., & Maki, B. E. (2013). Effect of spatial-memory decay and dual-task interference on perturbation-evoked reach-to-grasp reactions in the absence of online visual feedback. Human Movement Science, 32(2), 328–342. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2012.11.001
  • Cheng, K. B., Wang, K.-M., & Kuo, S.-Y. (2015). Role of arm motion in feet-in-place balance recovery. Journal of Biomechanics, 48(12), 3155–3162. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2015.07.008
  • Choi, W. J., Wakeling, J. M., & Robinovitch, S. N. (2015). Kinematic analysis of video-captured falls experienced by older adults in long-term care. Journal of Biomechanics, 48(6), 911–920. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2015.02.025
  • Corbeil, P., Bloem, B. R., van Meel, M., & Maki, B. E. (2013). Arm reactions evoked by the initial exposure to a small balance perturbation: A pilot study. Gait and Posture, 37(2), 300–303. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2012.07.017
  • Costello, K. E., Matrangola, S. L., & Madigan, M. L. (2012). Independent effects of adding weight and inertia on balance during quiet standing. BioMedical Engineering Online, 11(1), 20. doi:10.1186/1475-925X-11-20
  • Del Porto, H., Pechak, C., Smith, D., & Reed-Jones, R. (2012). Biomechanical effects of obesity on balance. International Journal of Exercise Science, 5(4), 301–320.
  • Dickstein, R., Peterka, R. J., & Horak, F. B. (2003). Effects of light fingertip touch on postural responses in subjects with diabetic neuropathy. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 74(5), 620–626. doi:10.1136/jnnp.74.5.620
  • Dickstein, R., Shupert, C. L., & Horak, F. B. (2001). Fingertip touch improves postural stability in patients with peripheral neuropathy. Gait and Posture, 14(3), 238–247. doi:10.1016/S0966-6362(01)00161-8
  • Dixon, P. C., & Pearsall, D. J. (2010). Gait dynamics on a cross-slope walking surface. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 26(1), 17–25. doi:10.1123/jab.26.1.17
  • Duncan, C. A., Hickey, C. J., & Byrne, J. M. (2018). The effects of a moving environment on postural control and task performance during manual materials handling, visual and arithmetic tasks. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 66, 221–229. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2018.03.007
  • Duncan, C. A., Ingram, T. G., Mansfield, A., Byrne, J. M., & McIlroy, W. E. (2016). Population differences in postural response strategy associated with exposure to a novel continuous perturbation stimuli: Would dancers have better balance on a boat? PLoS One, 11(11), e0165735. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0165735
  • Duncan, C. A., Ingram, T. G. J., Mansfield, A., McIlroy, W. E., & Byrne, J. M. (2018). Differences in lower limb muscle activation and centre of pressure movement between expert workers and novice in simulated maritime environments. IISE Transactions on Occupational Ergonomics and Human Factors, 6(1), 21–31. doi:10.1080/24725838.2018.1450309
  • Duncan, C. A., Langlois, R. G., Albert, W. J., & MacKinnon, S. N. (2014). The habituation of human postural responses to platform perturbations. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 44(6), 874–881. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2014.06.005
  • Duncan, C. A., MacKinnon, S. N., & Albert, W. J. (2010). Changes in thoracolumbar kinematics and centre of pressure when performing stationary tasks in moving environments. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 40(6), 648–654. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2010.08.006
  • Duncan, C. A., MacKinnon, S. N., & Albert, W. J. (2012). The effects of moving environments on thoracolumbar kinematics and foot center of pressure when performing lifting and lowering tasks. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 28(2), 111–119. doi:10.1123/jab.28.2.111
  • Feldman, F., & Robinovitch, S. N. (2007). Reducing hip fracture risk during sideways falls: Evidence in young adults of the protective effects of impact to the hands and stepping. Journal of Biomechanics, 40(12), 2612–2618. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2007.01.019
  • Fujiwara, K., Kiyota, T., Maeda, K., & Horak, F. B. (2007). Postural control adaptability to floor oscillation in the elderly. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 26(4), 485–493. doi:10.2114/jpa2.26.485
  • Gage, W. H., Frank, J. S., Prentice, S. D., & Stevenson, P. (2007). Organization of postural responses following a rotational support surface perturbation. Gait and Posture, 25(1), 112–120. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2006.02.003
  • Gage, W. H., Frank, J. S., Prentice, S. D., & Stevenson, P. (2008). Postural responses following a rotational support surface perturbation, following knee joint replacement: Frontal plane rotations. Gait and Posture, 27(2), 286–293. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2007.04.006
  • Gage, W. H., Zabjek, K. F., Hill, S. W., & McIlroy, W. E. (2007). Parallels in control of voluntary and perturbation-evoked reach-to-grasp movements: EMG and kinematics. Experimental Brain Research, 181(4), 627–637. doi:10.1007/s00221-007-0959-3
  • Garman, C. R., Nussbaum, M. A., Franck, C. T., & Madigan, M. L. (2016). A pilot study exploring obesity-related differences in fall rate and kinematic response resulting from a laboratory-induced trip. IIE Transactions on Occupational Ergonomics and Human Factors, 4(4), 211–221. doi:10.1080/21577323.2016.1198732
  • Gosine, P., Komisar, V., & Novak, A. C. (2019). Characterizing the demands of backward balance loss and fall recovery during stair descent to prevent injury. Applied Ergonomics, 81, doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2019.102900
  • Gravante, G. G., Russo, G. G., Pomara, F. F., & Ridola, C. (2003). Comparison of ground reaction forces between obese and control young adults during quiet standing on a baropodometric platform. Clinical Biomechanics, 18(8), 780–782. doi:10.1016/S0268-0033(03)00123-2
  • Guitard, P., Sveistrup, H., Edwards, N., & Lockett, D. (2011). Use of different bath grab bar configurations following a balance perturbation. Assistive Technology, 23(4), 205–214. doi:10.1080/10400435.2011.614674
  • Hall, C. D., & Jensen, J. L. (2004). The effect of cane use on the compensatory step following posterior perturbations. Clinical Biomechanics, 19(7), 678–687. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2004.05.002
  • Hansen, P. D., Woollacott, M. H., & Debu, B. (1988). Postural responses to changing task conditions. Experimental Brain Research, 73(3), 627–636. doi:10.1007/BF00406622
  • Henry, S. M., Hitt, J. R., Jones, S. L., & Bunn, J. Y. (2006). Decreased limits of stability in response to postural perturbations in subjects with low back pain. Clinical Biomechanics, 21(9), 881–892. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2006.04.016
  • Himes, C. L., & Reynolds, S. L. (2012). Effect of obesity on falls, injury, and disability. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 60(1), 124–129. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2011.03767.x
  • Hoops, M. L., Rosenblatt, N. J., Hurt, C. P., Crenshaw, J., & Grabiner, M. D. (2012). Does lower extremity osteoarthritis exacerbate risk factors for falls in older adults? Women's Health, 8(6), 685–698. doi:10.2217/WHE.12.53
  • Horak, F. B. (2006). Postural orientation and equilibrium: What do we need to know about neural control of balance to prevent falls? Age and Ageing, 35(suppl_2), ii7–ii11. doi:10.1093/ageing/afl077
  • Horak, F. B., & Nashner, L. M. (1986). Central programming of postural movements: Adaptation to altered support-surface configurations. Journal of Neurophysiology, 55(6), 1369–1381. doi:10.1152/jn.1986.55.6.1369
  • Hsiao, E. T., & Robinovitch, S. N. (1997). Common protective movements govern unexpected falls from standing height. Journal of Biomechanics, 31(1), 1–9. doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(97)00114-0
  • Hughes, R. E., Johnson, M. E., O'Driscoll, S. W., & An, K.-N. (1999). Age-related changes in normal isometric shoulder strength. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 27(5), 651–657. doi:10.1177/03635465990270051801
  • Inglis, J. T., Horak, F. B., Shupert, C. L., & Jones-Rycewicz, C. (1994). The importance of somatosensory information in triggering and scaling automatic postural responses in humans. Experimental Brain Research, 101(1), 159–164. doi:10.1007/BF00243226
  • International Code Council. (2016). 2015 International Building Code: Chapter 10 Means of Egress. (International Code Council) Retrieved January 12, 2017, from http://codes.iccsafe.org/app/book/content/2015-I-Codes/2015%20IBC%20HTML/Chapter%2010.html
  • Jacobs, J. V. (2016). A review of stairway falls and stair negotiation: Lessons learned and future needs to reduce injury. Gait and Posture, 49, 159–167. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2016.06.030
  • Jacobs, J. V., Henry, S. M., Jones, S. L., Hitt, J. R., & Bunn, J. Y. (2011). A history of low back pain associates with altered electromyographic activation patterns in response to perturbations of standing balance. Journal of Neurophysiology, 106(5), 2506–2514. doi:10.1152/jn.00296.2011
  • Jeka, J. J., & Lackner, J. R. (1994). Fingertip contact influences human postural control. Experimental Brain Research, 79(2), 495–502. doi:10.1007/BF02738408
  • Jensen, J. L., Brown, L. A., & Woollacott, M. H. (2001). Compensatory stepping: The biomechanics of a preferred response among older adults. Experimental Aging Research, 27(4), 361–376. doi:10.1080/03610730109342354
  • Johnson, M. E., Mille, M.-L., Martinez, K. M., Crombie, G., & Rogers, M. W. (2004). Age-related changes in hip abductor and adductor joint torques. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 5(4), 593–597. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2003.07.022
  • Jones, S. L., Henry, S. M., Raasch, C. C., Hitt, J. R., & Bunn, J. Y. (2012). Individuals with non-specific low back pain use a trunk stiffening strategy to maintain upright posture. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 22(1), 13–20. doi:10.1016/j.jelekin.2011.10.006
  • Katchky, A. M. (2017). Balance and knee joint kinematics after total knee arthroplasty: Comparing cruciate-retaining and posterior-stabilized designs (Masters dissertation). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto.
  • Kimel-Scott, D. R., Gulledge, E. N., Bolena, R. E., & Albright, B. C. (2014). Kinematic analysis of postural reactions to a posterior translation in rocker bottom shoes in younger and older adults. Gait and Posture, 39(1), 86–90. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2013.06.002
  • King, E. C., Lee, T. A., McKay, S. M., Scovil, C. Y., Peters, A. L., Pratt, J., & Maki, B. E. (2011). Does the “eyes lead the hand” principle apply to reach-to-grasp movements evoked by unexpected balance perturbations? Human Movement Science, 30(2), 368–383. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2010.07.005
  • King, E. C., McKay, S. M., Lee, T. A., Scovil, C. Y., Peters, A. L., & Maki, B. E. (2009). Gaze behavior of older adults in responding to unexpected loss of balance while walking in an unfamiliar environment: A pilot study. Journal of Optometry, 2(3), 119–126. doi:10.3921/joptom.2009.119
  • Kiss, R. M. (2012). Effect of degree of knee osteoarthritis on balancing capacity after sudden perturbation. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 22(4), 575–581. doi:10.1016/j.jelekin.2012.04.008
  • Knox, M. F., Chipchase, L. S., Schabrun, S. M., Romero, R. J., & Marshall, P. W. (2018). Anticipatory and compensatory postural adjustments in people with low back pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Spine Journal: Official Journal of the North American Spine Society, 18(10), 1934. doi:10.1016/j.spinee.2018.06.008
  • Komisar, V., Maki, B. E., & Novak, A. C. (2019). Effect of handrail height and age on the timing and speed of reach-to-grasp balance reactions during slope descent. Applied Ergonomics, 81, 102873.
  • Komisar, V., Fernie, G. R., & Novak, A. C. (2016). Influence of handrail height on the accuracy of reach-to-grasp balance recovery reactions in older adults during slope descent. National Falls Prevention Conference. Calgary, Canada.
  • Komisar, V., King, E. C., Fernie, G. R., & Novak, A. C. (2016). Use of handholds for balance recovery: Characterizing loading profiles in younger adults. 19th Biennial Meeting of the Canadian Society of Biomechanics. Hamilton, ON. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2018.11.006
  • Komisar, V., Nirmalanathan, K., & Novak, A. C. (2018). Influence of handrail height and falling direction on center of mass and trunk control and the physical demands of reach-to-grasp balance recovery reactions. Gait and Posture, 60, 209–216. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2017.12.009
  • Komisar, V., Nirmalanathan, K., King, E. C., Maki, B. E., & Novak, A. C. (2019). Use of handholds for balance and stability: Characterizing loading profiles in younger adults. Applied Ergonomics, 76, 20–31. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2018.11.006
  • Kouzaki, M., & Masani, K. (2008). Reduced postural sway during quiet standing by light touch is due to finger tactile feedback but not mechanical support. Experimental Brain Research, 188(1), 153–158. doi:10.1007/s00221-008-1426-5
  • Leamon, T. B., & Li, K. W. (1991). Load carrying and slip length. Proceedings of the 35th Annual Human Factors Society Meeting, San Francisco, CA.
  • Lee, P. Y., Tsai, Y. J., Liao, Y. T., Yang, Y. C., Lu, F. H., & Lin, S. I. (2018). Reactive balance control in older adults with diabetes. Gait & Posture, 61, 67–72. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2017.12.030
  • Levinger, P., Downie, C., Nagano, H., Petersen, A., Hayes, A., Sanders, K. M., … Begg, R. (2018). Stepping strategy used to recover balance during an induced fall is associated with impaired function and strength in people with knee osteoarthritis. International Journal of Rheumatic Diseases, 21(10), 1763–1771.
  • Levinger, P., Nagano, H., Downie, C., Hayes, A., Sanders, K. M., Cicuttini, F., & Begg, R. (2016). Biomechanical balance response during induced falls under dual task conditions in people with knee osteoarthritis. Gait & Posture, 48, 106–112.
  • Lew, F. L., & Qu, X. (2014). Effects of multi-joint muscular fatigue on biomechanics of slips . Journal of Biomechanics, 47(1), 59–64. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2013.10.010
  • Lew, F. L., & Qu, X. (2014). Effects of mental fatigue on biomechanics of slips. Ergonomics, 57(12), 1927–1932. doi:10.1080/00140139.2014.937771
  • Lexell, J. (1995). Human aging, muscle mass, and fiber type composition. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 50A, 11–16. doi:10.1093/gerona/50A.Special_Issue.11
  • Lexell, J., Taylor, C. C., & Sjostrom, M. (1988). What is the cause of aging atrophy? Total number, size and proportion of different fiber types studied in whole vastus lateralis muscle from 15- to 83-year-old men. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 84(2–3), 275–294.
  • Liu, J., Lockhart, T., & Kim, S. (2014). Reaction moment at the L5/S1 joint during simulated forward slipping with a handheld load. International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 20(3), 429–436. doi:10.1080/10803548.2014.11077067
  • Liu, X., Bhatt, T., & Pai, Y. C. (2016). Intensity and generalization of treadmill slip training high or low, progressive increase or decrease? Journal of Biomechanics, 49(2), 135–140. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2015.06.004
  • Liu, Z.-Q., & Yang, F. (2017). Obesity may not induce dynamic stability disadvantage during overground walking among young adults. PLoS One. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0169766
  • Lockhart, T. E., Woldstad, J. C., & Smith, J. L. (2003). Effects of age-related gait changes on the biomechanics of slips and falls. Ergonomics, 46(12), 1136–1160. doi:10.1080/0014013031000139491
  • Lord, S. R., Caplan, G. A., Colagiuri, R., Colagiuri, S., & Ward, J. A. (1993). Sensori-motor function in older persons with diabetes. Diabetic Medicine : A Journal of the British Diabetic Association, 10(7), 614–618.
  • Lu, Z., Rodiek, S. D., Shepley, M. M., & Duffy, M. (2011). Influences of physical environment on corridor walking among assisted living residents: Findings from focus group discussions. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 30(4), 463–484. doi:10.1177/0733464810370325
  • Lurie, J. D., Zagaria, A. B., Pidgeon, D. M., Forman, J. L., & Spratt, K. F. (2013). Pilot comparative effectiveness study of surface perturbation treadmill training to prevent in older adults. BMC Geriatrics, 13(1), 49. doi:10.1186/1471-2318-13-49
  • Mackey, D. C., & Robinovitch, S. N. (2005). Postural steadiness during quiet stance does not associate with ability to recover balance in older women. Clinical Biomechanics, 20(8), 776–783. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2005.05.002
  • Mackey, D. C., & Robinovitch, S. N. (2006). Mechanisms underlying age-related differences in ability to recover balance with the ankle strategy. Gait and Posture, 23(1), 59–68. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2004.11.009
  • Madigan, M., Rosenblatt, N. J., & Grabiner, M. D. (2014). Obesity as a factor contributing to falls by older adults. Current Obesity Reports, 3(3), 348–354. doi:10.1007/s13679-014-0106-y
  • Maki, B. E. (1985). Influence of handrail shape, size and surface texture on the ability of young and elderly users to generate stabilizing forces and moments, Technical report prepared for the National Research Council of Canada (Contract #0SR84-00197). Report available from Dr. B.E. Maki upon request.
  • Maki, B. E., & Fernie, G. R. (1983). Biomechanical assessment of handrail parameters with special consideration to the needs of elderly users. West Park Research, Toronto, Technical report prepared for the National Research Council of Canada (Contract #0SX82-00180). Report available from Dr. B.E. Maki upon request.
  • Maki, B. E., & McIlroy, W. E. (1997). The role of limb movements in maintaining upright stance: The “Change-in-Support” strategy. Physical Therapy, 77(5), 488–507. doi:10.1093/ptj/77.5.488
  • Maki, B. E., & Mcllroy, W. E. (1999). The control of foot placement during compensatory stepping reactions: Does speed of response take precedence over stability? IEEE Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering, 7(1), 80–90. doi:10.1109/86.750556
  • Maki, B. E., & McIlroy, W. E. (2006). Control of rapid limb movements for balance recovery: Age-related changes and implications for fall prevention. Age and Ageing, 35(suppl_2), ii12–ii18. doi:10.1093/ageing/afl078
  • Maki, B. E., & McIlroy, W. E. (2007). Cognitive demands and cortical control of human balance-recovery reactions. Journal of Neural Transmission, 114(10), 1279–1296. doi:10.1007/s00702-007-0764-y
  • Maki, B. E., Bartlett, S. A., & Fernie, G. R. (1984). Influence of stairway handrail height on ability to generate stabilizing forces and moments. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 26(6), 705–714. doi:10.1177/001872088402600610
  • Maki, B. E., Bartlett, S. A., & Fernie, G. R. (1985). Effect of stairway pitch on optimal handrail height. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 27(3), 355–359. doi:10.1177/001872088502700311
  • Maki, B. E., Cheng, K. C.-C., Mansfield, A., Scovil, C. Y., Perry, S. D., Peters, A. L., … McIlroy, W. E. (2008). Preventing falls in older adults: New interventions to promote more effective change-in-support balance reactions. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 18(2), 243–254. doi:10.1016/j.jelekin.2007.06.005
  • Maki, B. E., Edmondstone, M. A., & McIlroy, W. E. (2000). Age-related differences in laterally directed compensatory stepping behavior. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 55(5), M270–M277. doi:10.1093/gerona/55.5.M270
  • Maki, B. E., McIlroy, W. E., & Fernie, G. R. (2003). Change-in-support reactions for balance recovery: Control mechanisms, age-related changes, and implications for fall prevention. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine, 22(2), 20–26. doi:10.1109/MEMB.2003.1195691
  • Maki, B. E., Perry, S. D., & Mcllroy, W. E. (1998). Efficacy of handrails in preventing stairway falls: A new experimental approach. Safety Science, 28(3), 189–206. doi:10.1016/S0925-7535(98)80008-8
  • Maki, B. E., Perry, S. D., Norrie, R. G., & McIlroy, W. E. (1999). Effect of facilitation on sensation from plantar foot-surface boundaries on postural stabilization in young and older adults. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 6(1), M281, M297. doi:10.1093/gerona/54.6.M281
  • Maki, B. E., Zecevic, A., Bateni, H., Kirshenbaum, N., & McIlroy, W. E. (2001). Cognitive demands of executing postural reactions: Does aging impede attention switching? Neuroreport, 12(16), 3583–3587. doi:10.1097/00001756-200111160-00042
  • Mansfield, A., Aqui, A., Centen, A., Danells, C. J., DePaul, V. G., Knorr, S., … Mochizuki, G. (2015). Perturbation training to promote safe independent mobility post-stroke: Study protocol for a randomized control study. BMC Neurology, 15(1), 87. doi:10.1186/s12883-015-0347-8
  • Mansfield, A., Aqui, A., Danells, C. J., Knorr, S., Centen, A., DePaul, V. G., … Mochizuki, G. (2018). Does perturbation-based balance training prevent falls among individuals with chronic stroke? A randomized control trial. BMJ Open, 8(8), e021510. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-021510
  • Mansfield, A., Inness, E. L., Komar, J., Biasin, L., Brunton, K., Lakhani, B., & McIlroy, W. E. (2011). Training rapid stepping responses in an individual with stroke. Physical Therapy, 91(6), 958–969. doi:10.2522/ptj.20100212
  • Mansfield, A., Peters, A. L., Liu, B. A., & Maki, B. E. (2010). Effect of a perturbation-based balance training program on compensatory stepping and grasping reactions in older adults: A randomized controlled trial. Physical Therapy, 90(4), 476–491. doi:10.2522/ptj.20090070
  • Mansfield, A., Schinkel-Ivy, A., Danells, C. J., Aqui, A., Aryan, R., Biasin, L., … Inness, E. L. (2017). Does perturbation training prevent falls after discharge from stroke rehabilitation? A prospective cohort study with historical control. Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases, 26(10), 2174–2180. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2017.04.041
  • Mansfield, A., Wong, J. S., Bryce, J., Knorr, S., & Patterson, K. K. (2015). Does perturbation-based balance training prevent falls? Systematic review and meta-analysis of preliminary randomized controlled trials. Physical Therapy, 95(5), 700–709. doi:10.2522/ptj.20140090
  • Marigold, D. S., & Patla, A. E. (2002). Strategies for dynamic stability during locomotion on a slippery surface: Effects of prior experience and knowledge. Journal of Neurophysiology, 88(1), 339–353. doi:10.1152/jn.00691.2001
  • Martinelli, A. R., Coelho, D. B., Magalhaes, F. H., Kohn, A. F., & Teixeira, L. A. (2015). Light touch modulates balance recovery following perturbation: From fast response to stance restabilization. Experimental Brain Research, 233(5), 1399–1408. doi:10.1007/s00221-015-4214-z
  • Marucci-Wellman, H. R., Courtney, T. K., Corns, H. L., Sorock, G. S., Webster, B. S., Wasiak, R., … Leamon, T. B. (2015). The direct cost burden of 13 years of disabling workplace injuries in the US (1998–2010): Findings from the Liberty Mutual Workplace Safety Index. Journal of Safety Research, 55, 53–62. doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2015.07.002
  • Matrangola, S. L., & Madigan, M. L. (2011). The effects of obesity on balance recovery using an ankle strategy. Human Movement Science, 30(3), 584–595. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2010.11.007
  • McCrum, C., Gerards, M. H., Karamanidis, K., Zijlstra, W., & Meijer, K. (2017). A systematic review of gait perturbation paradigms for improving reactive stepping responses and falls risk among healthy older adults. European Review of Aging and Physical Activity, 14(1), 3. doi:10.1186/s11556-017-0173-7
  • McIlroy, W. E., & Maki, B. E. (1995). Adaptive changes to compensatory stepping responses. Gait and Posture, 3(1), 43–50. doi:10.1016/0966-6362(95)90808-6
  • McIlroy, W. E., & Maki, B. E. (1996). Age-related changes in compensatory stepping in response to unpredictable perturbations. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A, 51A(6), M289–M296. doi:10.1093/gerona/51A.6.M289
  • McIlroy, W. E., & Maki, B. E. (1996). Influence of destabilization on the temporal characteristics of “volitional” stepping. Journal of Motor Behavior, 28(1), 28–34. doi:10.1080/00222895.1996.9941730
  • McIlroy, W. E., & Maki, B. E. (1999). The control of lateral stability during rapid stepping reactions evoked by antero-posterior perturbation: Does anticipatory control play a role? Gait and Posture, 9(3), 190–198. doi:10.1016/S0966-6362(99)00013-2
  • McIntosh, A. S., Beatty, K. T., Dwan, L. N., & Vickers, D. R. (2006). Gait dynamics on an inclined walkway. Journal of Biomechanics, 39(13), 2491–2502. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2005.07.025
  • McKay, S. M., Fraser, J. E., & Maki, B. E. (2013). Effects of uni- and multimodal cueing on handrail grasping and associated gaze behavior in older adults. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 59, 407–414. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2013.06.031
  • Mersmann, F., Bohm, S., Bierbaum, S., Dietrich, R., & Arampatzis, A. (2013). Young and old adults prioritize dynamic stability control following gait perturbations when performing a concurrent cognitive task. Gait & Posture, 37(3), 373–377. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2012.08.005
  • Metter, E. J., Conwit, R., Tobin, J., & Fozard, J. L. (1997). Age-associated loss of power and strength in the upper extremities in women and men. Journal of Gerontology: Biological Sciences, 50A, B267–276.
  • Meyer, P. F., Oddsson, L. I., & De Luca, C. J. (2004). Reduced plantar sensitivity alters postural responses to lateral perturbations of balance. Experimental Brain Research, 157(4), 526–536. doi:10.1007/s00221-004-1868-3
  • Mille, M.-L., Rogers, M. W., Martinez, K., Hedman, L. D., Johnson, M. E., Lord, S. R., & Fitzpatrick, R. C. (2003). Thresholds for inducing protective stepping responses to external perturbations of human standing. Journal of Neurophysiology, 90(2), 666–674. doi:10.1152/jn.00974.2002
  • Miller, E. M., Matrangola, S. L., & Madigan, M. L. (2011). Effects of obesity on balance recovery from small postural perturbations. Ergonomics, 54(6), 547–554. doi:10.1080/00140139.2011.582959
  • Misiaszek, J. E., Stephens, M. J., Yang, J. F., & Pearson, K. G. (2000). Early corrective actions of the leg to perturbations at the torso during walking in humans. Experimental Brain Research, 131(4), 511–523. doi:10.1007/s002219900315
  • Moyer, B. E., Chambers, A. J., Redfern, M. S., & Cham, R. (2006). Gait parameters as predictors of slip severity in younger and older adults. Ergonomics, 49(4), 329–343. doi:10.1080/00140130500478553
  • Mukhopadhyay, P., O’Sullivan, L., & Gallwey, T. J. (2007). Estimating upper limb discomfort level due to intermittent isometric pronation torque with various combinations of elbow angles, forearm rotation angles, force and frequency with upper arm at 90° abduction. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 37(4), 313–325. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2006.11.007
  • Myung, R., & Smith, J. L. (1997). The effect of load carrying and floor contaminants on slip and fall parameters. Ergonomics, 40(2), 235–246. doi:10.1080/001401397188323
  • Nardone, A., Grasso, M., Tarantola, J., Corna, S., & Schieppati, M. (2000). Postural coordination in elderly subjects standing on a periodically moving platform. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 81(9), 1217–1223. doi:10.1053/apmr.2000.6286
  • National Safety Council. (2019). Worker's Compensation Costs. Retrieved from https://injuryfacts.nsc.org/work/costs/workers-compensation-costs/.
  • Norrie, R. G., Maki, B. E., Staines, W. R., & McIlroy, W. E. (2002). The time course of attention shifts following perturbation of upright stance. Experimental Brain Research, 146(3), 315–321. doi:10.1007/s00221-002-1172-z
  • Novak, A. C., Komisar, V., Maki, B. E., & Fernie, G. R. (2016). Age-related differences in dynamic balance control during stair descent and effect of varying step geometry. Applied Ergonomics, 52, 275–284. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2015.07.027
  • Okubo, Y., Sturnieks, D. L., Brodie, M. A., Duran, L., & Lord, S. R. (2019). Effect of reactive balance training involving repeated slips and trips on balance recovery among older adults: A blinded randomized controlled trial. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, glz021, https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glz021
  • Pai, Y. C., Bhatt, T., Wang, E., Espy, D., & Pavol, M. J. (2010). Inoculation against falls: Rapid adaptation by young and older adults to slips during daily activities. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 91(3), 452–459. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2009.10.032
  • Pai, Y. C., Bhatt, T., Yang, F., Wang, E., & Kritchevsky, S. (2014). Perturbation training can reduce community-dwelling older adults’ annual fall risk: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Gerontology Series A: Biomedical Sciences and Medical Sciences, 69(12), 1586–1594. doi:10.1093/gerona/glu087
  • Paillard, T. (2012). Effects of general and local fatigue on postural control: A review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(1), 162–176. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.05.009
  • Papa, E. V., Garg, H., & Dibble, L. E. (2015). Acute effects of muscle fatigue on anticipatory and reactive postural control in older individuals a systematic review of the evidence. Journal of Geriatric Physical Therapy, 38(1), 40–48. doi:10.1519/JPT.0000000000000026
  • Parijat, P., & Lockhart, T. E. (2008). Effects of lower extremity muscle fatigue on the outcomes of slip-induced falls. Ergonomics, 51(12), 1873–1884. doi:10.1080/00140130802567087
  • Patel, P. J., & Bhatt, T. (2015). Attentional demands of perturbation evoked compensatory stepping responses: Examining cognitive-motor interference to large magnitude forward perturbations. Journal of Motor Behavior, 47(3), 201–210. doi:10.1080/00222895.2014.971700
  • Perry, S. D. (2006). Evaluation of age-related plantar-surface insensitivity and onset age of advanced insensitivity in older adults using vibratory and touch tests. Neuroscience Letters, 392(1–2), 62–67. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2005.08.060
  • Perry, S. D., McIlroy, W. E., & Maki, B. E. (2000). The role of plantar cutaneous mechanoreceptors in the control of compensatory stepping reactions evoked by unpredictable, multi-directional perturbation. Brain Research, 877(2), 401–406. doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(00)02712-8
  • Perry, S. D., Radtke, A., McIlroy, W. E., Fernie, G. R., & Maki, B. E. (2008). Efficacy and effectiveness of a balance-enhancing insole. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 63(6), 595–602. doi:10.1093/gerona/63.6.595
  • Peterka, R. J. (2002). Sensorimotor integration in human postural control. Journal of Neurophysiology, 88(3), 1097–1118. doi:10.1152/jn.2002.88.3.1097
  • Pijnappels, M., Bobbert, M. F. V., & Dieen, J. H. (2005). Push-off reactions in recovery after tripping discriminate young subjects, older non-fallers and older fallers. Gait and Posture, 21(4), 388–394. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2004.04.009
  • Pijnappels, M., Kingma, I., Wezenberg, D., Reurink, G., & Van, D. J. H. (2010). Armed against falls: The contribution of arm movements to balance recovery after tripping. Experimental Brain Research, 201(4), 689–699. doi:10.1007/s00221-009-2088-7
  • Pliner, E. M., Campbell-Kyureghyan, N. H., & Beschorner, K. E. (2014). Effects of foot placement, hand positioning, age and climbing biodynamics on ladder slip outcomes. Ergonomics, 57(11), 1739–1749. doi:10.1080/00140139.2014.943681
  • Pliner, E. M., Seo, N. J., & Beschorner, K. E. (2017). Factors affecting fall severity from a ladder: Impact of climbing direction, gloves, gender and adaptation. Applied Ergonomics, 60, 163–170. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2016.11.011
  • Protas, E. J., Mitchell, K., Williams, A., Qureshy, H., Caroline, K., & Lai, E. C. (2005). Gait and step training to reduce falls in Parkinson's disease. NeuroRehabilitation, 20(3), 183–190.
  • Quant, S., Maki, B. E., Verrier, M. C., & McIlroy, W. E. (2001). Passive and active lower-limb movements delay upper-limb balance reactions. NeuroReport, 12(13), 2821–2825. doi:10.1097/00001756-200109170-00014
  • Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 2012-19 (2019, May 2). Ontario Regulation 332/12: Building Code. Retrieved June 4, 2019, from https://www.oario.ca/laws/regulation/120332
  • Redfern, M. S., Cham, R., Gielo-Perczak, K., Grönqvist, R., Hirvonen, M., Lanshammar, H., … Powers, C. (2001). Biomechanics of slips. Ergonomics, 44(13), 1138–1166. doi:10.1080/00140130110085547
  • Redfern, M. S., Muller, M. L., Jennings, J. R., & Furman, J. M. (2002). Attentional dynamics in postural control during perturbations in young and older adults. The Journal of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 57(8), B298–B303. doi:10.1093/gerona/57.8.B298
  • Richardson, S. J., Robinson, C. J., & Shum, J. (2005). A comparative study of reaction times between type II diabetes and non-diabetics. Biomedical Engineering Online, 4(1), 12.
  • Roos, P. E., McGuigan, M. P., Kerwin, D. G., & Trewartha, G. (2008). The role of arm movement in early trip recovery in younger and older adults Gait & Posture, 27(2), 352–356. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2007.05.001
  • Rosenblatt, N. J. (2014). Preventing trip-related falls by community-dwelling adults: A prospective study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 62(5), 1003. doi:10.1111/jgs.12428
  • Schnorenberg, A. J., Campbell-Kyureghyan, N. H., & Beschorner, K. E. (2015). Biomechanical response to ladder slipping events: Effects of hand placement. Journal of Biomechanics, 48(14), 3810–3815. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2015.09.001
  • Scott, D., Hayes, A., Sanders, K. M., Aitken, D., Ebeling, P. R., & Jones, G. (2014). Operational definitions of sarcopenia and their associations with 5-year changes in falls risk in community-dwelling middle-aged and older adults. Osteoporosis International, 25(1), 187–193. doi:10.1007/s00198-013-2431-5
  • Scovil, C. Y., Corbeil, P., Lee, T. A., McKay, S. M., Peters, A. L., & Maki, B. E. (2007). A novel handrail cueing system to prevent falls in older adults. Gerontechnology, 6(4), 224–229. doi:10.4017/gt.2007.06.04.005.00
  • Shen, X., & Mak, M. K. (2015). Technology-assisted balance and gait training reduces falls in patients with Parkinson’s disease: A randomized controlled trial with 12-month follow-up. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 29(2), 103–111. posture, 42(4), 580-583. doi:10.1177/1545968314537559
  • Shumway-Cook, A., & Woollacott, M. H. (2007). Motor control: Translating research into clinical practice. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
  • Silverman, A. K., Wilken, J. M., Sinitski, E. H., & Neptune, R. R. (2012). Whole-body angular momentum in incline and decline walking. Journal of Biomechanics, 45(6), 965–971. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2012.01.012
  • Simmons, R. W. (2005). Neuromuscular responses of trained ballet dancers to postural perturbations. International Journal of Neuroscience, 115(8), 1193–1203. doi:10.1080/00207450590914572
  • Simoneau, M., & Teasdale, N. (2015). Balance control impairment in obese individuals is caused by larger balance motor commands variability. Gait & Posture, 4(1), 203–208. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2014.10.008
  • Smania, N., Corato, E., Tinazzi, M., Stanzani, C., Fiaschi, A., Girardi, P., & Gandolfi, M. (2010). Effect of balance training on postural instability in patients with idiopathic Parkinson’s disease. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 24(9), 826–834. doi:10.1177/1545968310376057
  • Stanmore, E. K., Oldham, J., Skelton, D. A., O'Neill, T., Pilling, M., Campbell, A. J., & Todd, C. (2013). Fall incidence and outcomes of falls in a prospective study of adults with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Care and Research, 65(5), 637–744.
  • Street, B. D., & Gage, W. (2017). After total knee replacement younger patients demonstrate superior balance control compared to older patients when recovering from a forward fall. Clinical Biomechanics, 44, 59–66.
  • Strubhar, A. J., Peterson, M. L., Aschwege, J., Ganske, J., Kelley, J., & Schulte, H. (2015). The effect of text messaging on reactive balance and the temporal an spatial characteristics of gait. Gait & Posture, 42(4):580–583.
  • US Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2019, May 16). Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/iif/soii-data.htm
  • Van Ooteghem, K., Frank, J. S., Allard, F., Buchanan, J. J., Oates, A. R., & Horak, F. B. (2008). Compensatory postural adaptations during continuous, variable amplitude perturbations reveal generalized rather than sequence-specific learning. Experimental Brain Research, 187(4), 603–611. doi:10.1007/s00221-008-1329-5
  • Van Ooteghem, K., Lakhani, B., Akram, S., Miyasike Da Silva, V., & McIlroy, W. E. (2013). Time to disengage: Holding an object influences the execution of rapid compensatory reach-to-grasp reactions for recovery from whole-body instability. Experimental Brain Research, 231(2), 191–199. doi:10.1007/s00221-013-3682-2
  • Wang, Y., Bhatt, T., Liu, X., Wang, S., Lee, A., Wang, E., & Pai, Y. C. (2018). Can treadmill-slip perturbation training reduce immediate risk of over-ground-slip induced falls among community-dwelling older adults? Journal of Biomechanics, 84, 58–66. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2018.12.017
  • Weaver, T. B., & Tokuno, C. D. (2013). The influence of handrail predictability on compensatory arm reactions in response to a loss of balance. Gait & Posture, 38(2), 293–298. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2012.12.003
  • Weaver, T. B., Hamilton, L. E., & Tokuno, C. D. (2012). Age-related changes in the control of perturbation-evoked and voluntary arm movements. Clinical Neurophysiology, 123(10), 2025–2033. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2012.03.012
  • Wegner, L., Kisner, C., & Nichols, D. (1997). Static and dynamic balance responses in persons with bilateral knee osteoarthritis. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 25(1), 13–18. doi:10.2519/jospt.1997.25.1.13
  • Westlake, K. P., Johnson, B. P., Creath, R. A., Neff, R. M., & Rogers, M. W. (2016). Influence of non-spatial working memory demands on reach-grasp responses to loss of balance: Effects of age and fall risk. Gait and Posture, 45, 51–55. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2016.01.007
  • Wilson, E. L., Madigan, M. L., Davidson, B. S., & Nussbaum, M. A. (2006). Postural strategy changes with fatigue of the lumbar extensor muscles. Gait & Posture, 23(3), 348–354. doi:10.1016/j.gaitpost.2005.04.005
  • Wingert, J. R., Welder, C., & Foo, P. (2014). Age-related hip proprioception declines: Effects on postural sway and dynamic balance. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 95(2), 253–261. doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2013.08.012
  • Wright, M., & Roys, M. (2008). Accidents on English dwelling stairs are directly related to going size. Proceedings of the International Conference on Contemporary Ergonomics. Nottingham, UK.
  • Wu, X., & Madigan, M. L. (2014). Impaired plantar sensitivity among the obese is associated with increased postural sway. Neuroscience Letters, 583, 49–54. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2014.09.029
  • Yamaguchi, T., Cheng, K. C., McKay, S. M., & Maki, B. E. (2015). Footwear width and balance-recovery reactions: A new approach to improving lateral stability in older adults. Gerontechnology, 13(3), 359–367. doi:10.4017/gt.2015.13.3.008.00
  • Yeoh, H. T., Lockhart, T. E., & Wu, X. (2013). Non-fatal occupational falls on the same level. Ergonomics, 56(2), 153–165. doi:10.1080/00140139.2012.746739
  • Zettel, J. L., McIlroy, W. E., & Maki, B. E. (2008). Effect of competing attentional demands on perturbation-evoked stepping reactions and associated gaze behavior in young and older adults. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 63(12), 1370–1379.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.