Chapter 7: Extra-pulmonary tuberculosis

References

• World Health Organization. Definitions and Reporting Framework for Tuberculosis–2013 Revision: updated December 2014 and January 2020. 2013. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/79199. Accessed March 2, 2022.
   Google Scholar
• Public Health Agency of Canada. personal communication. 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Vachon J, Gallant V, Siu W. Tuberculosis in Canada, 2016. Can Commun Dis Rep. 2018;44(3-4):75–81. doi:10.14745/ccdr.v44i34a01.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aguado JM, Herrero JA, Gavaldá J, et al. Clinical presentation and outcome of tuberculosis in kidney, liver, and heart transplant recipients in Spain. Spanish Transplantation Infection Study Group, GESITRA. Transplantation. 1997;63(9):1278–1286. doi:10.1097/00007890-199705150-00015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russo RL, Dulley FL, Suganuma L, França IL, Yasuda MA, Costa SF. Tuberculosis in hematopoietic stem cell transplant patients: case report and review of the literature. Int J Infect Dis. 2010;14 Suppl 3:e187–e191. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2009.08.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dobler CC, Cheung K, Nguyen J, Martin A. Risk of tuberculosis in patients with solid cancers and haematological malignancies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir J. 2017;50(2):1700157. doi:10.1183/13993003.00157-2017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingkaew N, Sangtong B, Amnuaiphon W, et al. HIV-associated extrapulmonary tuberculosis in Thailand: epidemiology and risk factors for death. Int J Infect Dis. 2009;13(6):722–729. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2008.11.013.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones BE, Young SM, Antoniskis D, Davidson PT, Kramer F, Barnes PF. Relationship of the manifestations of tuberculosis to CD4 cell counts in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;148(5):1292–1297. doi:10.1164/ajrccm/148.5.1292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leeds IL, Magee MJ, Kurbatova EV, et al. Site of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis is Associated with HIV Infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2012;55(1):75–81. doi:10.1093/cid/cis303.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lau SK, Wei WI, Hsu C, Engzell UC. Efficacy of fine needle aspiration cytology in the diagnosis of tuberculous cervical lymphadenopathy. J Laryngol Otol. 1990;104(1):24–27. doi:10.1017/s0022215100111697.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asimacopoulos EP, Berry M, Garfield B, et al. The diagnostic efficacy of fine-needle aspiration using cytology and culture in tuberculosis lymphadenitis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2010;14(1):93–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polesky A, Grove W, Bhatia G. Peripheral tuberculous lymphadenitis: epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and outcome. Medicine (Baltimore). 2005;84(6):350–362. doi:10.1097/01.md.0000189090.52626.7a.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menzies D, Wong T, eds. Canadian Tuberculosis Standards. 7th ed.. Chapter 7: Nonrespiratory Tuberculosis. Canadian Thoracic Society, Canadian Lung Association, Public Health Agency of Canada. Can Respir J. 2013;20(Suppl A):54A–64A.
   Google Scholar
• Kohli M, Schiller I, Dendukuri N, et al. Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra and Xpert MTB/RIF assays for extrapulmonary tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021;1:CD012768. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012768.pub3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Conde MB, Loivos AC, Rezende VM, et al. Yield of sputum induction in the diagnosis of pleural tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1 2003;167(5):723–5. doi:10.1164/rccm.2111019.
   Google Scholar
• Ruan SY, Chuang YC, Wang JY, et al. Revisiting tuberculosis pleurisy: pleural fluid characteristics and diagnostic yield of mycobacterial culture in an endemic area. Thorax. Sep 2012;67(9):822–827. doi:10.1136/thoraxjnl-2011-201363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seibert AF, Haynes J, Jr., Middleton R, Bass JB.Jr. Tuberculous pleural effusion. Twenty-year experience. Chest. Apr. 1991;99(4):883–886. doi:10.1378/chest.99.4.883.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akhter N, Sumalani KK, Chawla D, Rizvi A. N. Comparison between the diagnostic accuracy of Xpert MTB/Rif assay and culture for pleural tuberculosis using tissue biopsy. ERJ Open Res. 2019;5(3):00065-2019. doi:10.1183/23120541.00065-2019.
   Google Scholar
• Diacon AH, Van de Wal BW, Wyser C, et al. Diagnostic tools in tuberculous pleurisy: a direct comparative study. Eur Respir J. 2003;22(4):589–591. doi:10.1183/09031936.03.00017103a.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Casalini AG, Mori PA, Majori M, et al. Pleural tuberculosis: medical thoracoscopy greatly increases the diagnostic accuracy. ERJ Open Res. 2018;4(1):00046-2017. doi:10.1183/23120541.00046-2017.
   Google Scholar
• Lewinsohn DM, Leonard MK, LoBue PA, et al. Official American Thoracic Society/Infectious Diseases Society of America/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Clinical Practice Guidelines: Diagnosis of Tuberculosis in Adults and Children. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64(2):e1–e33. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw694.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan CH, Arnold M, Chan CY, Mak TW, Hoheisel GB. Clinical and pathological features of tuberculous pleural effusion and its long-term consequences. Respiration. 1991;58(3-4):171–175. doi:10.1159/000195921.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohli M, Schiller I, Dendukuri N, et al. Xpert((R)) MTB/RIF assay for extrapulmonary tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;8:CD012768. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012768.pub2.
   Google Scholar
• Jiang J, Yang J, Shi Y, et al. Head-to-head comparison of the diagnostic accuracy of Xpert MTB/RIF and Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra for tuberculosis: a meta-analysis. Infect Dis (Lond). 2020; 52(11):763–775. doi:10.1080/23744235.2020.1788222.
   Google Scholar
• Armand S, Vanhuls P, Delcroix G, Courcol R, Lemaitre N. Comparison of the Xpert MTB/RIF test with an IS6110-TaqMan real-time PCR assay for direct detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in respiratory and nonrespiratory specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49(5):1772–1776. doi:10.1128/jcm.02157-10.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang AM, Feris-Iglesias J, Pena C, et al. Clinical evaluation of the Gen-Probe Amplified Direct Test for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex organisms in cerebrospinal fluid. J Clin Microbiol. 1998;36(8):2191–2194. doi:10.1128/JCM.36.8.2191-2194.1998.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pai M, Flores LL, Pai N, Hubbard A, Riley LW, Colford JM. Diagnostic accuracy of nucleic acid amplification tests for ­tuberculous meningitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2003;3(10):633–643. doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(03)00772-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thwaites G, Fisher M, Hemingway C, et al. British Infection Society guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis of the central nervous system in adults and children. J Infect. 2009;59(3):167–187. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2009.06.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouchama A, Al-Kawi MZ, Kanaan I, et al. Brain biopsy in tuberculoma: the risks and benefits. Neurosurgery. 1991;28(3):405–409.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajshekhar V, Chandy MJ. CT-guided stereotactic surgery in the management of intracranial tuberculomas. Br J Neurosurg. 1993;7(6):665–671. doi:10.3109/02688699308995096.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohanty A, Santosh V, Anandh B, et al. Diagnostic efficacy of stereotactic biopsies in intracranial tuberculomas. Surg Neurol. 1999;52(3):252–257. discussion 257-8. doi:10.1016/s0090-3019(99)00089-0.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bahr NC, Nuwagira E, Evans EE, ASTRO-CM Trial Team, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra for tuberculous meningitis in HIV-infected adults: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018;18(1):68–75. doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(17)30474-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdem H, Ozturk-Engin D, Elaldi N, et al. The microbiological diagnosis of tuberculosis meningitis: results of Haydarpasa-1 study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20(10):O600–8. doi:10.1111/1469-0691.12478.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heemskerk AD, Donovan J, Thu DDA, et al. Improving the microbiological diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis: A prospective, international, multicentre comparison of conventional and modified Ziehl-Neelsen stain, GeneXpert, and culture of cerebrospinal fluid.J Infect. 2018;77(6):509–515. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2018.09.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maiti S, Banerjee M, Das R. Down to the ground zero: Perspective from tissue diagnosis in neurological TB. International Journal of Clinical and Biomedical Research. 2020;6(2):25–29. doi:10.31878/ijcbr.2020.62.07.
   Google Scholar
• Giouleme O, Paschos P, Katsaros M, et al. Intestinal tuberculosis: a diagnostic challenge-case report and review of the literature. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011;23(11):1074–1077. doi:10.1097/MEG.0b013e32834a9470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh MM, Bhargava AN, Jain KP. Tuberculous peritonitis. An evaluation of pathogenetic mechanisms, diagnostic procedures and therapeutic measures. N Engl J Med. 1969;281(20):1091–1094. doi:10.1056/nejm196911132812003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanai FM, Bzeizi KI. Systematic review: tuberculosis peritonitis–presenting features, diagnostic strategies and treatment. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2005;22(8):685–700. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02645.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chau TN, Leung VK, Wong S, et al. Diagnostic challenges of tuberculosis peritonitis in patients with and without end-stage renal failure. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45(12):e141–e146. doi:10.1086/523727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeh HF, Chiu TF, Chen JC, Ng CJ. Tuberculous peritonitis: analysis of 211 cases in Taiwan. Dig Liver Dis. 2012;44(2):111–117. doi:10.1016/j.dld.2011.08.020.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Que Y, Wang X, Liu Y, Li P, Ou G, Zhao W. Ultrasound-guided biopsy of greater omentum: an effective method to trace the origin of unclear ascites. Eur J Radiol. May 2009;70(2):331–335. doi:10.1016/j.ejrad.2008.01.036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vardareli E, Kebapci M, Saricam T, Pasaoglu O, Acikalin M. Tuberculous peritonitis of the wet ascitic type: clinical features and diagnostic value of image-guided peritoneal biopsy. Dig Liver Dis. 2004;36(3):199–204. doi:10.1016/j.dld.2003.10.016.
   Google Scholar
• Chow KM, Chow VC, Szeto CC. Indication for peritoneal biopsy in tuberculous peritonitis. Am J Surg. 2003;185(6):567–573. doi:10.1016/s0002-9610(03)00079-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar S, Bopanna S, Kedia S, et al. Evaluation of Xpert MTB/RIF assay performance in the diagnosis of abdominal tuberculosis. Intest Res. 2017;15(2):187–194. doi:10.5217/ir.2017.15.2.187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Talib A, Bhatty S, Mehmood K, et al. GeneXpert in stool: Diagnostic yield in Intestinal Tuberculosis. J Clin Tuberc Other Mycobact Dis. 2019;17:100131 doi:10.1016/j.jctube.2019.100131.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liu R, Li J, Tan Y, et al. Multicenter evaluation of the acid-fast bacillus smear, mycobacterial culture, Xpert MTB/RIF assay, and adenosine deaminase for the diagnosis of tuberculosis peritonitis in China. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;90:119–124. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2019.10.036.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellam BL, Mandavdhare HS, Sharma K, et al. Utility of tissue Xpert-Mtb/Rif for the diagnosis of intestinal tuberculosis in patients with ileocolonic ulcers. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2019;6:2049936119863939 doi:10.1177/2049936119863939.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bera C, Michael JS, Burad D, et al. Tissue Xpert MTB/Rif assay is of limited use in diagnosing peritoneal tuberculosis in patients with exudative ascites. Indian J Gastroenterol. 2015;34(5):395–398. doi:10.1007/s12664-015-0599-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horvath KD, Whelan RL. Intestinal tuberculosis: return of an old disease. Am J Gastroenterol. 1998;93(5):692–696. doi:10.1111/j.1572-0241.1998.207_a.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penz E, Boffa J, Roberts DJ, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of the Xpert(R) MTB/RIF assay for extra-pulmonary tuberculosis: a meta-analysis. Int j Tuberc Lung Dis. 2015;19(3):278–284. i-iii. doi:10.5588/ijtld.14.0262.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denkinger CM, Schumacher SG, Boehme CC, Dendukuri N, Pai M, Steingart KR. Xpert MTB/RIF assay for the diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Respir J. 2014;44(2):435–446. doi:10.1183/09031936.00007814.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iseman M. A Clinician’s Guide to Tuberculosis. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Zeka AN, Tasbakan S, Cavusoglu C. Evaluation of the GeneXpert MTB/RIF assay for rapid diagnosis of tuberculosis and detection of rifampin resistance in pulmonary and extrapulmonary specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49(12):4138–4141. doi:10.1128/jcm.05434-11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bentz RR, Dimcheff DG, Nemiroff MJ, Tsang A, Weg JG. The incidence of urine cultures positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis in a general tuberculosis patient population. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1975;111(5):647–650. doi:10.1164/arrd.1975.111.5.647.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lattimer JK, Reilly RJ, Segawa A. The significance of the isolated positive urine culture in genitourinary tuberculosis. J Urol. 1969;102(5):610–613. doi:10.1016/s0022-5347(17)62211-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu HL, Lai CC, Yu MC, et al. Clinical and microbiological characteristics of urine culture-confirmed genitourinary tuberculosis at medical centers in Taiwan from 1995 to 2007. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2011;30(3):319–326. doi:10.1007/s10096-010-1083-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baniel J, Manning A, Leiman G. Fine needle cytodiagnosis of renal tuberculosis. J Urol. 1991;146(3):689–691. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(17)37894-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das KM, Vaidyanathan S, Rajwanshi A, Indudhara R. Renal tuberculosis: diagnosis with sonographically guided aspiration cytology. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1992;158(3):571–573. doi:10.2214/ajr.158.3.1738997.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turkmen IC, Bassullu N, Comunoglu C, et al. Female genital system tuberculosis: a retrospective clinicopathological study of 1,548 cases in Turkish women. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2012;286(2):379–384. doi:10.1007/s00404-012-2281-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Margolis K, Wranz PA, Kruger TF, Joubert JJ, Odendaal HJ. Genital tuberculosis at Tygerberg Hospital–prevalence, clinical presentation and diagnosis. S Afr Med J. 1992;81(1):12–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma JB, Kriplani A, Dharmendra S, Chaubey J, Kumar S, Sharma SK. Role of Gene Xpert in diagnosis of female genital tuberculosis: a preliminary report. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2016;207:237–238. doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2016.10.045.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thangappah RB, Paramasivan CN, Narayanan S. Evaluating PCR, culture & histopathology in the diagnosis of female genital tuberculosis. Indian J Med Res. 2011;134:40–46.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gómez García I, Gómez Mampaso E, Burgos Revilla J, et al. Tuberculous orchiepididymitis during 1978-2003 period: review of 34 cases and role of 16S rRNA amplification. Urology. 2010;76(4):776–781. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2010.01.033.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee IK, Yang WC, Liu JW. Scrotal tuberculosis in adult patients: a 10-year clinical experience. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007;77(4):714–718.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gorse GJ, Belshe RB. Male genital tuberculosis: a review of the literature with instructive case reports. Rev Infect Dis. 1985;7(4):511–524. Jul-Augdoi:10.1093/clinids/7.4.511.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Madeb R, Marshall J, Nativ O, Erturk E. Epididymal tuberculosis: case report and review of the literature. Urology. 2005;65(4):798. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2004.10.029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Altez-Fernandez C, Ortiz V, Mirzazadeh M, Zegarra L, Seas C, Ugarte-Gil C. Diagnostic accuracy of nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) in urine for genitourinary tuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis. 2017;17(1):390. doi:10.1186/s12879-017-2476-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Y, Wu P, Fu L, Liu YH, Zhang Y, Zhao Y. Multicentre evaluation of Xpert MTB/RIF assay in detecting urinary tract tuberculosis with urine samples. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):11053. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-47358-3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Perez-Risco D, Rodriguez-Temporal D, Valledor-Sanchez I, Alcaide F. Evaluation of the Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra Assay for Direct Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex in Smear-Negative Extrapulmonary Samples. J Clin Microbiol. 2018;56(9). doi:10.1128/JCM.00659-18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kashyap B, Kaur T, Jhamb R, Kaur I. Evaluating the utility of menstrual blood versus endometrial biopsy as a clinical sample in the diagnosis of female genital tuberculosis. Asian J Med Res. 2012;1:45–49.
   Google Scholar
• Lenk S, Schroeder J. Genitourinary tuberculosis. Curr Opin Urol. 2001;11(1):93–98. doi:10.1097/00042307-200101000-00014.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Colmenero JD, Ruiz-Mesa JD, Sanjuan-Jimenez R, Sobrino B, Morata P. Establishing the diagnosis of tuberculous vertebral osteomyelitis. Eur Spine J. 2013;22 Suppl 4:579–86. doi:10.1007/s00586.012-2348-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cormican L, Hammal R, Messenger J, Milburn HJ. Current difficulties in the diagnosis and management of spinal tuberculosis. Postgrad Med J. 2006;82(963):46–51. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2005.032862.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garrido G, Gomez-Reino JJ, Fernandez-Dapica P, Palenque E, Prieto S. A review of peripheral tuberculosis arthritis. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1988;18(2):142–149. doi:10.1016/0049-0172(88)90007-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis ME, el-Ramahi KM, Al-Dalaan AN. Tuberculosis of peripheral joints: a dilemma in diagnosis. Tuber Lung Dis. 1993;74(6):399–404. doi:10.1016/0962-8479(93)90084-b.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sant M, Bajaj H. Role of histopathology in the diagnosis of tuberculosis synovitis. J Indian Med Assoc. 1992;90(10):263–264.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mondal A. Cytological diagnosis of vertebral tuberculosis with fine-needle aspiration biopsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1994;76(2):181–184. doi:10.2106/00004623-199402000-00003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun Q, Wang S, Dong W, et al. Diagnostic value of Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra for osteoarticular tuberculosis. J Infect. 2019;79(2):153–158. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2019.06.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallace R, Cohen AS. Tuberculous arthritis: A report of two cases with review of biopsy and synovial fluid findings. Am J Med. 1976;61(2):277–282. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(76)90177-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pertuiset E, Beaudreuil J, Liote F, et al. Spinal tuberculosis in adults. A study of 103 cases in a developed country, 1980-1994. Medicine (Baltimore). 1999;78(5):309–320. doi:10.1097/00005792-199909000-00003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quale JM, Lipschik GY, Heurich AE. Management of tuberculous pericarditis. Ann Thorac Surg. 1987;43(6):653–655. doi:10.1016/s0003-4975(10)60243-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strang JI, Kakaza HH, Gibson DG, et al. Controlled clinical trial of complete open surgical drainage and of prednisolone in treatment of tuberculosis pericardial effusion in Transkei. Lancet. 1988;2(8614):759–764. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(88)92415-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Komsuoğlu B, Göldelï O, Kulan K, Komsuoğlu SS. The diagnostic and prognostic value of adenosine deaminase in tuberculous pericarditis. Eur Heart J. 1995;16(8):1126–1130. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.eurheartj.a061057.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mayosi BM, Burgess LJ, Doubell AF. Tuberculous pericarditis. Circulation. 2005;112(23):3608–3616. doi:10.1161/circulationaha.105.543066.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fowler NO, Manitsas GT. Infectious pericarditis. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1973;16(3):323–336. doi:10.1016/S0033-0620(73)80004-0.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Trautner BW, Darouiche RO. Tuberculous pericarditis: optimal diagnosis and management. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33(7):954–961. doi:10.1086/322621.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cegielski JP, Devlin BH, Morris AJ. Comparison of PCR, culture, and histopathology for diagnosis of tuberculosis pericarditis. J Clin Microbiol. 1997;35(12):3254–7. doi:10.1128/JCM.35.12.3254–3257.1997
   Google Scholar
• Yu G, Ye B, Chen D, et al. Comparison between the diagnostic validities of Xpert MTB/RIF and interferon-gamma release assays for tuberculosis pericarditis using pericardial tissue. PLoS One. 2017;12(12):e0188704. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0188704.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prout S, Benatar SR. Disseminated tuberculosis. A study of 62 cases. S Afr Med J. 1980;58(21):835–842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim JH, Langston AA, Gallis HA. Miliary tuberculosis: epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and outcome. Rev Infect Dis. 1990;12(4):583–590. doi:10.1093/clinids/12.4.583.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mert A, Bilir M, Tabak F, et al. Miliary tuberculosis: clinical manifestations, diagnosis and outcome in 38 adults. Respirology. 2001;6(3):217–224. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1843.2001.00328.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maartens G, Willcox PA, Benatar SR. Miliary tuberculosis: rapid diagnosis, hematologic abnormalities, and outcome in 109 treated adults. Am J Med. 1990;89(3):291–296. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(90)90340-J.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hussain SF, Irfan M, Abbasi M, et al. Clinical characteristics of 110 miliary tuberculosis patients from a low HIV prevalence country. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2004;8(4):493–499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mert A, Arslan F, Kuyucu T, et al. Miliary tuberculosis: Epidemiologicaland clinical analysis of large-case series from moderate to low tuberculosis endemic Country. Medicine (Baltimore). 2017;96(5):e5875. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000005875.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma SK, Mohan A. Miliary Tuberculosis. Microbiol Spectr. 2017;5(2). doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.TNMI7-0013-2016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang JY, Hsueh PR, Wang SK, et al. Disseminated tuberculosis: a 10-year experience in a medical center. Medicine (Baltimore). Jan 2007;86(1):39–46. doi:10.1097/MD.0b013e318030b605.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dankner WM, Davis CE. Mycobacterium bovis as a significant cause of tuberculosis in children residing along the United States-Mexico border in the Baja California region. Pediatrics. 2000;105(6):E79–e79. doi:10.1542/peds.105.6.e79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fontanilla JM, Barnes A, von Reyn CF. Current diagnosis and management of peripheral tuberculous lymphadenitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53(6):555–562. doi:10.1093/cid/cir454.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shriner KA, Mathisen GE, Goetz MB. Comparison of mycobacterial lymphadenitis among persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus and seronegative controls. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;15(4):601–605. doi:10.1093/clind/15.4.601.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook VJ, Manfreda J, Hershfield ES. Tuberculous lymphadenitis in Manitoba: incidence, clinical characteristics and treatment. Can Respir J. 2004;11(4):279–286. doi:10.1155/2004/826501.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lee MP, Chan JW, Ng KK, Li PC. Clinical manifestations of tuberculosis in HIV-infected patients. Respirology. 2000;5(4):423–426. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1843.2000.00287.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Long R, Boffa J. High HIV-TB co-infection rates in marginalized populations: evidence from Alberta in support of screening TB patients for HIV. Can J Public Health. 2010;101(3):202–204.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin T, Hoeppner VH, Ring ED. Superficial mycobacterial lymphadenitis in Saskatchewan. CMAJ. 1988;138(5):431–434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Metchock, BG, Nolte FS, and Wallace RJ. Jr. Manual of clinical microbiology. In: Mycobacterium. 7th ed. Washington, D.C.: American Society for Microbiology; 1999:399–437.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell IA, Ormerod LP, Friend JA, Jenkins PA, Prescott RJ. Six months versus nine months chemotherapy for tuberculosis of lymph nodes: final results. Respir Med. 1993;87(8):621–623. doi:10.1016/s0954-6111(05)80265-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yuen AP, Wong SH, Tam CM, Chan SL, Wei WI, Lau SK. Prospective randomized study of thrice weekly six-month and nine-month chemotherapy for cervical tuberculous lymphadenopathy. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1997;116(2):189–192. doi:10.1016/s0194-5998(97)70323-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Loenhout-Rooyackers JH, Laheij RJ, Richter C, Verbeek AL. Shortening the duration of treatment for cervical tuberculous lymphadenitis. Eur Respir J. 2000;15(1):192–195. doi:10.1183/09031936.00.15119200.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMaster P, Isaacs D. Critical review of evidence for short course therapy for tuberculous adenitis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19(5):401–404. doi:10.1097/00006454-200005000-00003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donald PR. The chemotherapy of tuberculous lymphadenopathy in children. Tuberculosis (Edinb). 2010;90(4):213–224. doi:10.1016/j.tube.2010.05.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkey CR, Yap T, Pereira J, et al. Characterization and management of paradoxical upgrading reactions in HIV-uninfected patients with lymph node tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40(9):1368–1371. doi:10.1086/429317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blaikley JF, Khalid S, Ormerod LP. Management of peripheral lymph node tuberculosis in routine practice: an unselected 10-year cohort. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2011;15(3):375–378.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seok H, Jeon JH, Oh KH, et al. Characteristics of residual lymph nodes after six months of antituberculous therapy in HIV-negative individuals with cervical tuberculous lymphadenitis. BMC Infect Dis. 2019;19(1):867. doi:10.1186/s12879-019-4507-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaw JA, Diacon AH, Koegelenberg CFN. Tuberculous pleural effusion. Respirology. Oct 2019;24(10):962–971. doi:10.1111/resp.13673.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antonangelo L, Faria CS, Sales RK. Tuberculous pleural effusion: diagnosis & management. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2019;13(8):747–759. doi:10.1080/17476348.2019.1637737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wen P, Wei M, Han C, He Y, Wang MS. Risk factors for tuberculous empyema in pleural tuberculosis patients. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):19569. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-56140-4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Valdes L, Alvarez D, San JE, et al. Tuberculous pleurisy: a study of 254 patients. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158(18):2017–2021. doi:10.1001/archinte.158.18.2017.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim HJ, Lee HJ, Kwon SY, et al. The prevalence of pulmonary parenchymal tuberculosis in patients with tuberculous pleuritis. Chest. 2006;129(5):1253–1258. doi:10.1378/chest.129.5.1253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ko JM, Park HJ, Kim CH. Pulmonary changes of pleural TB: up-to-date CT imaging. Chest. 2014;146(6):1604–1611. doi:10.1378/chest.14-0196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Gennaro F, Pisani L, Veronese N, et al. Potential Diagnostic Properties of Chest Ultrasound in Thoracic Tuberculosis-A Systematic Review. IJERPH. Oct 12 2018;15(10):2235. doi:10.3390/ijerph15102235.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keshishyan S, Kaul V, Gupta A, Ahn C, Aronow WS, Epelbaum O. Sputum culture for the diagnosis of tuberculous pleural effusion: analysis of absolute and incremental yields. Adv Respir Med. 2019;87(5):281–288. doi:10.5603/ARM.2019.0050.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gopi A, Madhavan SM, Sharma SK, Sahn SA. Diagnosis and treatment of tuberculous pleural effusion in 2006. Chest. 2007;131(3):880–889. doi:10.1378/chest.06-2063.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cañete C, Galarza I, Granados A, Farrero E, Estopà R, Manresa F. Tuberculous pleural effusion: experience with six months of treatment with isoniazid and rifampicin. Thorax. 1994;49(11):1160–1161. doi:10.1136/thx.49.11.1160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai YF, Chao TY, Wang YH, Lin AS. Pigtail drainage in the treatment of tuberculosis pleural effusions: a randomised study. Thorax. 2003;58(2):149–151. doi:10.1136/thorax.58.2.149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Rodriguez JF, Valcarce-Pardeiro N, Alvarez-Diaz H, Marino-Callejo A. Long-term efficacy of 6-month therapy with isoniazid and rifampin compared with isoniazid, rifampin, and pyrazinamide treatment for pleural tuberculosis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2019;38(11):2121–2126. doi:10.1007/s10096-019-03651-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wyser C, Walzl G, Smedema JP, Swart F, van Schalkwyk EM, van de Wal BW. Corticosteroids in the treatment of tuberculous pleurisy. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized study. Chest. 1996;110(2):333–338. doi:10.1378/chest.110.2.333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan H, Yoo J, Darsini P. Corticosteroids for tuberculous pleurisy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;3:CD001876. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001876.pub3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhuniya S, Arunabha DC, Choudhury S, Saha I, Roy TS, Saha M. Role of therapeutic thoracentesis in tuberculosis pleural effusion. Ann Thorac Med. 2012;7(4):215–219. doi:10.4103/1817-1737.102176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Light RW. Update on tuberculous pleural effusion. Respirology. 2010;15(3):451–458. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1843.2010.01723.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferrer J. Tuberculous pleural effusion and tuberculous empyema. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;22(6):637–646. doi:10.1055/s-2001-18800.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long R, Barrie J, Stewart K, Peloquin CA. Treatment of a tuberculous empyema with simultaneous oral and intrapleural antituberculosis drugs. Can Respir J. 2008;15(5):241–243. doi:10.1155/2008/747206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho J-K, Choi YM, Lee SS, et al. Clinical features and outcomes of abdominal tuberculosis in southeastern Korea: 12 years of experience. BMC Infect Dis. 2018;18(1):699. doi:10.1186/s12879-018-3635-2.
   Google Scholar
• Debi U, Ravisankar V, Prasad KK, Sinha SK, Sharma AK. Abdominal tuberculosis of the gastrointestinal tract: revisited. World J Gastroenterol. 2014;20(40):14831–14840. doi:10.3748/wjg.v20.i40.14831.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukewar S, Mukewar S, Ravi R, Prasad A, S Dua K. Colon tuberculosis: endoscopic features and prospective endoscopic follow-up after anti-tuberculosis treatment. Clin Transl Gastroenterol. 2012;3:e24. doi:10.1038/ctg.2012.19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagi B, Kochhar R, Bhasin DK, Singh K. Colorectal tuberculosis. Eur Radiol. 2003;13(8):1907–1912. doi:10.1007/s00330-002-1409-z.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almadi MA, Ghosh S, Aljebreen AM. Differentiating intestinal tuberculosis from Crohn’s disease: a diagnostic challenge. Am J Gastroenterol. 2009;104(4):1003–1012. doi:10.1038/ajg.2008.162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakubowski A, Elwood RK, Enarson DA. Clinical features of abdominal tuberculosis. J Infect Dis. Oct 1988;158(4):687–692. doi:10.1093/infdis/158.4.687.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee W-K, Van Tonder F, Tartaglia CJ, et al. CT appearances of abdominal tuberculosis. Clin Radiol. 2012;67(6):596–604. doi:10.1016/j.crad.2011.11.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balthazar EJ, Gordon R, Hulnick D. Ileocecal tuberculosis: CT and radiologic evaluation. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1990;154(3):499–503. doi:10.2214/ajr.154.3.2106212.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pereira JM, Madureira AJ, Vieira A, Ramos I. Abdominal tuberculosis: imaging features. Eur J Radiol. 2005;55(2):173–180. doi:10.1016/j.ejrad.2005.04.015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta P, Kumar S, Sharma V, et al. Common and uncommon imaging features of abdominal tuberculosis. J Med Imaging Radiat Oncol. 2019;63(3):329–339. doi:10.1111/1754-9485.12874.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pulimood AB, Ramakrishna BS, Kurian G, et al. Endoscopic mucosal biopsies are useful in distinguishing granulomatous colitis due to Crohn’s disease from tuberculosis. Gut. 1999;45(4):537–541. doi:10.1136/gut.45.4.537.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ye Z, Lin Y, Cao Q, He Y, Xue L. Granulomas as the Most Useful Histopathological Feature in Distinguishing between Crohn’s Disease and Intestinal Tuberculosis in Endoscopic Biopsy Specimens. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015;94(49):e2157. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000002157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pratap Mouli V, Munot K, Ananthakrishnan A, et al. Endoscopic and clinical responses to anti-tubercular therapy can differentiate intestinal tuberculosis from Crohn’s disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2017;45(1):27–36. doi:10.1111/apt.13840.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patton PH, Parker CE, MacDonald JK, Chande N. Anti-tuberculous therapy for maintenance of remission in Crohn’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;7:CD000299. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000299.pub3.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gupta A, Pratap Mouli V, Mohta S, et al. Anti-tubercular therapy given to differentiate Crohn’s disease from intestinal tuberculosis predisposes to stricture formation. J Crohns Colitis. 2020;14(11):1611–1618. doi:10.1093/ecco-jcc/jjaa091.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marrie TJ, Hershfield ES. Tuberculosis peritonitis in Manitoba. Can J Surg. 1978;21(6):533–536.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tirumani SH, Ojili V, Gunabushanam G, et al. Imaging of tuberculosis of the abdominal viscera: beyond the intestines. J Clin Imaging Sci. 2013;3:17. doi:10.4103/2156-7514.111234.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sharma MP, Bhatia V. Abdominal tuberculosis. Indian J Med Res. 2004;120(4):305–315.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdelaal A, Alfkey R, Abdelaziem S, et al. Role of laparoscopic peritoneal biopsy in the diagnosis of peritoneal tuberculosis. A seven-year experience. Chirurgia (Bucur). 2014;109(3):330–334.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yilmaz A, Ece F, Bayramgurler B, Akkaya E, Baran R. The value of Ca 125 in the evaluation of tuberculosis activity. Respir Med. 2001;95(8):666–669. doi:10.1053/rmed.2001.1121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jullien S, Jain S, Ryan H, Ahuja V. Six-month therapy for abdominal tuberculosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;11:CD012163. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012163.pub2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Park SH, Yang SK, Yang DH, et al. Prospective randomized trial of six-month versus nine-month therapy for intestinal tuberculosis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53(10):4167–4171. doi:10.1128/aac.00874-09.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonard MK, Blumberg HM. Musculoskeletal Tuberculosis. Microbiol Spectr. 2017;5(2). doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.TNMI7-0046-2017.
   Google Scholar
• Sharma A, Chhabra HS, Chabra T, Mahajan R, Batra S, Sangondimath G. Demographics of tuberculosis of spine and factors affecting neurological improvement in patients suffering from tuberculosis of spine: a retrospective analysis of 312 cases. Spinal Cord. 2017;55(1):59–63. doi:10.1038/sc.2016.85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansen IS, Nielsen SL, Hove M, et al. Characteristics and Clinical Outcome of Bone and Joint Tuberculosis From 1994 to 2011: A Retrospective Register-based Study in Denmark. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;61(4):554–562. doi:10.1093/cid/civ326.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broderick C, Hopkins S, Mack DJF, et al. Delays in the diagnosis and treatment of bone and joint tuberculosis in the United Kingdom. Bone Joint J. 2018;100-B(1):119–124. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.100b1.Bjj-2017-0357.R1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh R, Magu NK, Rohilla RK. Clinicoradiologic Profile of Involvement and Healing in Tuberculosis of the Spine. Ann Med Health Sci Res. 2016;6(5):311–327. doi:10.4103/amhsr.amhsr_188_15.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dunn RN, Ben Husien M. Spinal tuberculosis: review of current management. Bone Joint J. 2018;100-B(4):425–431. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.100b4.Bjj-2017-1040.R1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boachie-Adjei O, Squillante RG. Tuberculosis of the spine. Orthop Clin North Am. 1996;27(1):95–103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rezai AR, Lee M, Cooper PR, Errico TJ, Koslow M. Modern management of spinal tuberculosis. Neurosurgery. 1995;36(1):87–97. doi:10.1227/00006123-199501000-00011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhandari A, Garg RK, Malhotra HS, et al. Outcome assessment in conservatively managed patients with cervical spine tuberculosis. Spinal Cord. 2014;52(6):489–493. doi:10.1038/sc.2014.49.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim JH, Ahn JY, Jeong SJ, et al. Prognostic factors for unfavourable outcomes of patients with spinal tuberculosis in a country with an intermediate tuberculosis burden: a multicentre cohort study. Bone Joint J. 2019;101-B(12):1542–1549. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.101b12.Bjj-2019-0558.R1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kilborn T, Janse van Rensburg P, Candy S. Pediatric and adult spinal tuberculosis: imaging and pathophysiology. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 2015;25(2):209–231. doi:10.1016/j.nic.2015.01.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burrill J, Williams CJ, Bain G, Conder G, Hine AL, Misra RR. Tuberculosis: a radiologic review. Radiographics. 2007;27(5):1255–1273. doi:10.1148/rg.275065176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boxer DI, Pratt C, Hine AL, McNicol M. Radiological features during and following treatment of spinal tuberculosis. Br J Radiol. 1992;65(774):476–479. doi:10.1259/0007-1285-65-774-476.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joseffer SS, Cooper PR. Modern imaging of spinal tuberculosis. J Neurosurg Spine. 2005;2(2):145–150. doi:10.3171/spi.2005.2.2.0145.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jain AK, Sreenivasan R, Mukunth R, Dhammi IK. Tubercular spondylitis in children. Indian J Orthop. 2014;48(2):136–144. doi:10.4103/0019-5413.128747.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shikhare SN, Singh DR, Shimpi TR, Peh WC. Tuberculous osteomyelitis and spondylodiscitis. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2011;15(5):446–458. doi:10.1055/s-0031-1293491.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gu Y, Wang G, Dong W, et al. Xpert MTB/RIF and GenoType MTBDRplus assays for the rapid diagnosis of bone and joint tuberculosis. Int J Infect Dis. 2015;36:27–30. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2015.05.014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Held M, Laubscher M, Mears S, et al. Diagnostic Accuracy of the Xpert MTB/RIF Assay for Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis in Children With Musculoskeletal Infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2016;35(11):1165–1168. doi:10.1097/INF.0000000000001271.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Held M, Laubscher M, Zar HJ, Dunn RN. GeneXpert polymerase chain reaction for spinal tuberculosis: an accurate and rapid diagnostic test. Bone Joint J. 2014;96-B(10):1366–1369. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.96b10.34048.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shen Y, Yu G, Zhong F, Kong X. Diagnostic accuracy of the Xpert MTB/RIF assay for bone and joint tuberculosis: A meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2019;14(8):e0221427. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0221427.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao G, Rao J, Cai Y, et al. Analysis of Treatment and Prognosis of 863 Patients with Spinal Tuberculosis in Guizhou Province. Biomed Res Int. 2018;2018:3265735. doi:10.1155/2018/3265735.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wei G, Mu J, Wang G, et al. The reliability analysis of Xpert-positive result for smear-negative and culture-negative specimen collected from bone and joint tuberculosis suspects. J Thorac Dis. 2016;8(6):1205–1209. doi:10.21037/jtd.2016.04.19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faroug R, Psyllakis P, Gulati A, Makvana S, Pareek M, Mangwani J. Diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis of the foot and ankle-A literature review. Foot (Edinb). 2018;37:105–112. doi:10.1016/j.foot.2018.07.005.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barik S, Choudhury AK, Singh V, Bali S. Extra-Spinal Osteoarticular Tuberculosis: A Retrospective Analysis of 103 Cases. Curr Health Sci J. 2019;45(2):142–147. doi:10.12865/chsj.45.02.03.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Watts HG, Lifeso RM. Tuberculosis of bones and joints. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1996;78(2):288–298. doi:10.2106/00004623-199602000-00019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogan JI, Hurtado RM, Nelson SB. Mycobacterial Musculoskeletal Infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2017;31(2):369–382. doi:10.1016/j.idc.2017.01.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi JA, Koh SH, Hong SH, Koh YH, Choi JY, Kang HS. Rheumatoid arthritis and tuberculosis arthritis: differentiating MRI features. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2009;193(5):1347–1353. doi:10.2214/AJR.08.2164.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawlani V, Chandra T, Mishra RN, Aggarwal A, Jain UK, Gujral RB. MRI features of tuberculosis of peripheral joints. Clin Radiol. 2003;58(10):755–762. doi:10.1016/s0009-9260(03)00271-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanghvi DA, Iyer VR, Deshmukh T, Hoskote SS. MRI features of tuberculosis of the knee. Skeletal Radiol. 2009;38(3):267–273. doi:10.1007/s00256-008-0617-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shu CC, Wang JY, Yu CJ, Lee LN. Mycobacterial arthritis of large joints. Ann Rheum Dis. 2009;68(9):1504–1505. doi:10.1136/ard.2008.095554.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donald PR. The chemotherapy of osteo-articular tuberculosis with recommendations for treatment of children. J Infect. 2011;62(6):411–439. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2011.04.239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Controlled trial of short-course regimens of chemotherapy in the ambulatory treatment of spinal tuberculosis. Results at three years of a study in Korea. Twelfth report of the Medical Research Council Working Party on Tuberculosis of the Spine. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1993;75(2):240–248. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.75b2.8444944.
   Google Scholar
• A 15-year assessment of controlled trials of the management of tuberculosis of the spine in Korea and Hong Kong. Thirteenth Report of the Medical Research Council Working Party on Tuberculosis of the Spine. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1998;80(3):456–462. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.80b3.8544.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Parthasarathy R, Sriram K, Santha T, Prabhakar R, Somasundaram PR, Sivasubramanian S. Short-course chemotherapy for tuberculosis of the spine. A comparison between ambulant treatment and radical surgery-ten-year report. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1999;81(3):464–471. doi:10.1302/0301-620x.81b3.9043.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jain AK, Sreenivasan R, Saini NS, Kumar S, Jain S, Dhammi IK. Magnetic resonance evaluation of tubercular lesion in spine. Int Orthop. 2012;36(2):261–269. doi:10.1007/s00264-011-1380-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mittal S, Jain AK, Chakraborti KL, Aggarwal AN, Upreti L, Bhayana H. Evaluation of Healed Status in Tuberculosis of Spine by Fluorodeoxyglucose-positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography and Contrast Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Indian J Orthop. 2019;53(1):160–168. doi:10.4103/ortho.IJOrtho_224_18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jutte PC, Van Loenhout-Rooyackers JH. Routine surgery in addition to chemotherapy for treating spinal tuberculosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;(1);Cd004532. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004532.pub2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thwaites G, Fisher M, Hemingway C, Scott G, Solomon T, Innes J. British Infection Society guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis of the central nervous system in adults and children. J Infect. 2009;59(3):167–187. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2009.06.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonard JM. Central Nervous System Tuberculosis. Microbiol Spectr. 2017;5(2). doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.TNMI7-0044-2017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arvanitakis Z, Long RL, Hershfield ES, et al. M. tuberculosis molecular variation in CNS infection: evidence for strain-dependent neurovirulence. Neurology. 1998;50(6):1827–1832. doi:10.1212/WNL.50.6.1827.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu PC, Yang CC, Ye JJ, Huang PY, Chiang PC, Lee MH. Prognostic factors of tuberculosis meningitis in adults: a 6-year retrospective study at a tertiary hospital in northern Taiwan. J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2010;43(2):111–118. doi:10.1016/S1684-1182(10)60018-7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilkinson RJ, Rohlwink U, Misra UK, Tuberculous Meningitis International Research Consortium, et al. Tuberculous meningitis. Nat Rev Neurol. 2017;13(10):581–598. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2017.120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiang SS, Khan FA, Milstein MB, et al. Treatment outcomes of childhood tuberculous meningitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. Oct 2014;14(10):947–957. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70852-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thwaites GE, Nguyen DB, Nguyen HD, et al. Dexamethasone for the treatment of tuberculous meningitis in adolescents and adults. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(17):1741–1751. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa040573.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torok ME, Nguyen DB, Tran TH, et al. Dexamethasone and long-term outcome of tuberculous meningitis in Vietnamese adults and adolescents. PLoS One. 2011;6(12):e27821. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0027821.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdem H, Ozturk-Engin D, Tireli H, et al. Hamsi scoring in the prediction of unfavorable outcomes from tuberculous meningitis: results of Haydarpasa-II study. J Neurol. 2015;262(4):890–898. doi:10.1007/s00415-015-7651-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marais BJ, Heemskerk AD, Marais SS, Tuberculous Meningitis International Research Consortium, et al. Standardized Methods for Enhanced Quality and Comparability of Tuberculous Meningitis Studies. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;64(4):501–509. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw757.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thao LTP, Wolbers M, Heemskerk AD, et al. Dynamic Prediction of Death in Patients With Tuberculous Meningitis Using Time-updated Glasgow Coma Scale and Plasma Sodium Measurements. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;70(5):827–834. doi:10.1093/cid/ciz262.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanei Taheri M, Karimi MA, Haghighatkhah H, Pourghorban R, Samadian M, Delavar Kasmaei H. Central nervous system tuberculosis: an imaging-focused review of a reemerging disease. Radiol Res Pract. 2015;2015:202806. doi:10.1155/2015/202806.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Botha H, Ackerman C, Candy S, Carr JA, Griffith-Richards S, Bateman KJ. Reliability and diagnostic performance of CT imaging criteria in the diagnosis of tuberculosis meningitis. PLoS One. 2012;7(6):e38982. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038982.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pienaar M, Andronikou S, van Toorn R. MRI to demonstrate diagnostic features and complications of TBM not seen with CT. Childs Nerv Syst. 2009;25(8):941–947. doi:10.1007/s00381-008-0785-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourgi K, Fiske C, Sterling TR. Tuberculosis Meningitis. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2017;19(11):39. doi:10.1007/s11908-017-0595-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart SM. The bacteriological diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis. J Clin Pathol. 1953;6(3):241–242. doi:10.1136/jcp.6.3.241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy DH, Fallon RJ. Tuberculous meningitis. JAMA. 1979;241(3):264–268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chakravorty S, Simmons AM, Rowneki M, et al. The New Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra: Improving Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Resistance to Rifampin in an Assay Suitable for Point-of-Care Testing. mBio. 2017;8(4). doi:10.1128/mBio.00812-17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Automated Real-Time Nucleic Acid Amplification Technology for Rapid and Simultaneous Detection of Tuberculosis and Rifampicin Resistance: Xpert MTB/RIF Assay for the Diagnosis of Pulmonary and Extra-Pulmonary TB in Adults and Children. Policy Update. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2013.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. WHO meeting report of a technical expert consultation: non-inferiority analysis of Xpert MTF/RIF Ultra compared to Xpert MTB/RIF. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2017. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/254792. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. Accessed March 2, 2022.
   Google Scholar
• Kent SJ, Crowe SM, Yung A, Lucas CR, Mijch AM. Tuberculous meningitis: a 30-year review. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17(6):987–994. doi:10.1093/clinids/17.6.987.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thwaites G, Chau TT, Mai NT, Drobniewski F, McAdam K, Farrar J. Tuberculous meningitis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;68(3):289–299. doi:10.1136/jnnp.68.3.289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rock RB, Olin M, Baker CA, Molitor TW, Peterson PK. Central nervous system tuberculosis: pathogenesis and clinical aspects. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2008;21(2):243–261, table of contents. doi:10.1128/CMR.00042-07.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nahid P, Dorman SE, Alipanah N, et al. Official American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines: Treatment of Drug-Susceptible Tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63(7):e147–e195. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Tuberculosis [NICE Guideline No. 33]. November 13, 2020. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng33. Accessed November 13, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• American Academy of Pediatrics. Red Book: 2018 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 31st ed. Itasca, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2018.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Guidelines for treatment of drug-susceptible tuberculosis and patient care, 2017 update. World Health Organization; 2017. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/255052. Accessed March 2, 2022.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Treatment of Tuberculosis: guidelines. 4th ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2010. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/44165. Accessed on March 2, 2022.
   Google Scholar
• Cresswell FV, Te Brake L, Atherton R, et al. Intensified antibiotic treatment of tuberculosis meningitis. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2019;12(3):267–288. doi:10.1080/17512433.2019.1552831.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ClinicalTrials.gov [Internet]. Intensified Tuberculosis Treatment to Reduce the Mortality of Patients With Tuberculosis Meningitis (INTENSE-TBM). National Library of Medicine (US). Updated August 28, 2020. Accessed September 28, 2020. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04145258.
   Google Scholar
• Marais S, Cresswell FV, Hamers RL, et al. High dose oral rifampicin to improve survival from adult tuberculosis meningitis: A randomised placebo-controlled double-blinded phase III trial (the HARVEST study). Wellcome Open Research. 2019;4.190. doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.15565.1.
   Google Scholar
• ClinicalTrials.gov [Internet]. Optimizing Treatment to Improve TBM Outcomes in Children (TBM-KIDS). National Library of Medicine (US). Sept 28, 2020. Updated Aug 13, 2020. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02958709. Accessed September 29, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Charlie L, Abay SM, Tesfaye A, Mlera RN, Mwango S, Goretti M. Safety and efficacy of high-dose rifampicin in the management of tuberculosis meningitis: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Mycobacteriol. 2021;10(3):312–319. doi:10.4103/ijmy.ijmy_135_21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cresswell FV, Meya DB, Kagimu E, et al. High-Dose Oral and Intravenous Rifampicin for the Treatment of Tuberculosis Meningitis in Predominantly Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-Positive Ugandan Adults: A Phase II Open-Label Randomized Controlled Trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73(5):876–884. doi:10.1093/cid/ciab162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wasserman S, Davis A, Stek C, et al. Plasma Pharmacokinetics of High-Dose Oral versus Intravenous Rifampicin in Patients with Tuberculous Meningitis: a Randomized Controlled Trial. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2021;65(8):e0014021. doi:10.1128/AAC.00140-21.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Svensson EM, Dian S, Te Brake L, et al. Model-Based Meta-analysis of Rifampicin Exposure and Mortality in Indonesian Tuberculous Meningitis Trials. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(8):1817–1823. Nov 5doi:10.1093/cid/ciz1071.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arbiv. Thorax. 2022.
   Google Scholar
• Ellard GA, Humphries MJ, Allen BW. Cerebrospinal fluid drug concentrations and the treatment of tuberculous meningitis. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;148(3):650–655. doi:10.1164/ajrccm/148.3.650.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rizvi I, Malhotra HS, Garg RK, Kumar N, Uniyal R, Pandey S. Fluoroquinolones in the management of tuberculous meningitis: Systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2018;77(4):261–275. doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2018.06.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruslami R, Ganiem AR, Dian S, et al. Intensified regimen containing rifampicin and moxifloxacin for tuberculosis meningitis: an open-label, randomised controlled phase 2 trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13(1):27–35. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(12)70264-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heemskerk AD, Bang ND, Mai NT, et al. Intensified Antituberculosis Therapy in Adults with Tuberculous Meningitis. N Engl J Med. 2016;374(2):124–134. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1507062.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heemskerk AD, Nguyen MTH, Dang HTM, et al. Clinical Outcomes of Patients With Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis Meningitis Treated With an Intensified Antituberculosis Regimen. Clin Infect Dis. 2017;65(1):20–28. doi:10.1093/cid/cix230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun F, Ruan Q, Wang J, et al. Linezolid manifests a rapid and dramatic therapeutic effect for patients with life-threatening tuberculous meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58(10):6297–6301. doi:10.1128/AAC.02784-14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li H, Lu J, Liu J, Zhao Y, Ni X, Zhao S. Linezolid is Associated with Improved Early Outcomes of Childhood Tuberculosis Meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2016;35(6):607–610. doi:10.1097/INF.0000000000001114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alvarez-Uria G, Midde M, Pakam R, Naik PK. Initial Antituberculous Regimen with Better Drug Penetration into Cerebrospinal Fluid Reduces Mortality in HIV Infected Patients with Tuberculous Meningitis: Data from an HIV Observational Cohort Study. Tuberc Res Treat. 2013;2013:242604. doi:10.1155/2013/242604.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Donald PR, Schoeman JF, Van Zyl LE, De Villiers JN, Pretorius M, Springer P. Intensive short course chemotherapy in the management of tuberculosis meningitis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1998;2(9):704–711.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jullien S, Ryan H, Modi M, Bhatia R. Six months therapy for tuberculous meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;9:CD012091. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012091.pub2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. Guidelines for treatment of drug-susceptible tuberculosis and patient care, 2017 update. 2017. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
   Google Scholar
• Nahid P, Dorman SE, Alipanah N, et al. Official American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines: Treatment of Drug-Susceptible Tuberculosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63(7):e147–e195. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prasad K, Singh MB, Ryan H. Corticosteroids for managing tuberculous meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;4:CD002244. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002244.pub4.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Donovan J, Thwaites GE, Huynh J. Tuberculosis meningitis: where to from here? Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2020;33(3):259–266. doi:10.1097/QCO.0000000000000648.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoeman JF, Janse van Rensburg A, Laubscher JA, Springer P. The role of aspirin in childhood tuberculous meningitis. J Child Neurol. 2011;26(8):956–962. doi:10.1177/0883073811398132.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mai NT, Dobbs N, Phu NH, et al. A randomised double blind placebo controlled phase 2 trial of adjunctive aspirin for tuberculosis meningitis in HIV-uninfected adults. eLife. 2018;7:e33478. doi:10.7554/eLife.33478.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ClinicalTrials.gov [Internet]. Linezolid, Aspirin and Enhanced Dose Rifampicin in HIV-TBM (LASER-TBM). National Library of Medicine (US). Sept 28 2020. Updated August 14, 2020. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03927313.
   Google Scholar
• ISRCTN registry [Internet]. SURE: Short intensive treatment for children with tuberculosis meningitis. BMC. September, 28, 2020. Updated Sept 23, 2020. doi:10.1186/ISRCTN40829906.
   Google Scholar
• Rohlwink UK, Kilborn T, Wieselthaler N, Banderker E, Zwane E, Figaji AA. Imaging Features of the Brain, Cerebral Vessels and Spine in Pediatric Tuberculous Meningitis With Associated Hydrocephalus. Pediatr Infect Dis J. Oct 2016;35(10):e301–e310. doi:10.1097/INF.0000000000001236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marais S, Van Toorn R, Chow FC, Tuberculous Meningitis International Research Consortium, et al. Management of intracranial tuberculous mass lesions: how long should we treat for? Wellcome Open Res. 2019;4:158. doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.15501.2.
   Google Scholar
• Donovan J, Figaji A, Imran D, Phu NH, Rohlwink U, Thwaites GE. The neurocritical care of tuberculosis meningitis. Lancet Neurol. 2019;18(8):771–783. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(19)30154-1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crump JA, Reller LB. Two decades of disseminated tuberculosis at a university medical center: the expanding role of mycobacterial blood culture. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37(8):1037–1043. Oct 15doi:10.1086/378273.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meira L, Chaves C, Araujo D, et al. Predictors and outcomes of disseminated tuberculosis in an intermediate burden setting. Pulmonology. 2019;25(6):320–327. doi:10.1016/j.pulmoe.2018.11.001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee J, Lim JK, Kim EJ, et al. Comparison of clinical manifestations and treatment outcome according to age groups in adult patients with miliary tuberculosis. J Thorac Dis. 2018;10(5):2881–2889. doi:10.21037/jtd.2018.04.139.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohan A, Sharma SK, Pande JN. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in miliary tuberculosis: a twelve year experience. Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci. 1996;38(3):157–162.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boushab BM, Basco LK. Miliary tuberculosis and acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Clin Tuberc Other Mycobact Dis. 2019;16:100113. doi:10.1016/j.jctube.2019.100113.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Long R, O’Connor R, Palayew M, Hershfield E, Manfreda J. Disseminated tuberculosis with and without a miliary pattern on chest radiograph: a clinical-pathologic-radiologic correlation. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1997;1(1):52–58.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma SK, Mohan A, Sharma A. Miliary tuberculosis: A new look at an old foe. J Clin Tuberc Other Mycobact Dis. 2016;3:13–27. doi:10.1016/j.jctube.2016.03.003.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heiden D, Saranchuk P, Keenan JD, et al. Eye examination for early diagnosis of disseminated tuberculosis in patients with AIDS. Lancet Infect Dis. 2016;16(4):493–499. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(15)00269-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehta S. Patterns of ocular inflammation in patients with miliary tuberculosis. F1000Res. 2017;6:412. doi:10.12688/f1000research.11035.1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rieder HL, Kelly GD, Bloch AB, Cauthen GM, Snider DE.Jr. Tuberculosis diagnosed at death in the United States. Chest. 1991;100(3):678–681. doi:10.1378/chest.100.3.678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Optican RJ, Ost A, Ravin CE. High-resolution computed tomography in the diagnosis of miliary tuberculosis. Chest. 1992;102(3):941–943. doi:10.1378/chest.102.3.941.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lefebvre N, Argemi X, Meyer N, et al. Clinical usefulness of 18F-FDG PET/CT for initial staging and assessment of treatment efficacy in patients with lymph node tuberculosis. Nucl Med Biol. 2017;50:17–24. doi:10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2017.04.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbara A, Davidson RN, Etiology and management of genitourinary tuberculosis. Nat Rev Urol. 2011;8(12):678–688. doi:10.1038/nrurol.2011.172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fanning A. Tuberculosis: 6. Extrapulmonary disease. CMAJ. 1999;160(11):1597–1603.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sourial MW, Brimo F, Horn R, Andonian S. Genitourinary tuberculosis in North America: A rare clinical entity. Can Urol Assoc J. 2015;9(7-8):E484–9. doi:10.5489/cuaj.2643.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao Y, Fan Y, Chen Y, et al. Gross Hematuria Is More Common in Male and Older Patients with Renal Tuberculosis in China: A Single-Center 15-Year Clinical Experience. Urol Int. 2017;99(3):290–296. doi:10.1159/000464472.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eastwood JB, Corbishley CM, Grange JM. Tuberculosis and the kidney. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2001;12(6):1307–1314. doi:10.1681/ASN.V1261307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merchant S, Bharati A, Merchant N. Tuberculosis of the genitourinary system-Urinary tract tuberculosis: Renal tuberculosis-Part II. Indian J Radiol Imaging. 2013;23(1):64–77. doi:10.4103/0971-3026.113617.
   Google Scholar
• Maclean KA, Becker AK, Chang SD, Harris AC. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis: imaging features beyond the chest. Can Assoc Radiol J. 2013;64(4):319–324. doi:10.1016/j.carj.2012.07.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Y, Wu JP, Qin GC, et al. Computerised tomography and intravenous pyelography in urinary tuberculosis: a retrospective descriptive study. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2015;19(12):1441–1447. doi:10.5588/ijtld.14.0888.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster D, Long R, Shandro C, et al. Fluoroquinolone resistance among renal tuberculosis isolates in Alberta Canada;1990-2003. International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease. 2010;14:217–222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldfarb DS. SL. Tuberculosis of the genitourinary tract. 1996. 609–622. Tuberculosis.
   Google Scholar
• Grace GA, Devaleenal DB, Natrajan M. Genital tuberculosis in females. Indian J Med Res. 2017;145(4):425–436. doi:10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_1550_15.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sharma JB, Sharma E, Sharma S, Dharmendra S. Female genital tuberculosis: Revisited. Indian J Med Res. 2018;148(Suppl):S71–s83. Decdoi:10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_648_18.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gupta B, Shree S, Rajaram S, Goel N. Genital tuberculosis: Unusual presentations. Int J Mycobacteriol. 2016;5(3):357–359. doi:10.1016/j.ijmyco.2016.06.017.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Khanna A, Agrawal A. Markers of genital tuberculosis in infertility. Singapore Med J. 2011;52(12):864–867.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shah HU, Sannananja B, Baheti AD, Udare AS, Badhe PV. Hysterosalpingography and ultrasonography findings of female genital tuberculosis. Diagn Interv Radiol. 2015;21(1):10–15. doi:10.5152/dir.2014.13517.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma JB, Roy KK, Pushparaj M, Kumar S, Malhotra N, Mittal S. Laparoscopic findings in female genital tuberculosis. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2008;278(4):359–364. doi:10.1007/s00404-008-0586-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar P, Shah NP, Singhal A, et al. Association of tuberculous endometritis with infertility and other gynecological complaints of women in India. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46(12):4068–4070. doi:10.1128/jcm.01162-08.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neelam BM. Namita K. Genital tuberculosis and its consequences on subsequent fertility. J Obstet Gynecol India. 2005; 2005(6):534–537.
   Google Scholar
• Flibotte JJ, Lee GE, Buser GL, et al. Infertility, in vitro fertilization and congenital tuberculosis. J Perinatol. 2013;33(7):565–568. doi:10.1038/jp.2012.146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yadav S, Singh P, Hemal A, Kumar R. Genital tuberculosis: current status of diagnosis and management. Transl Androl Urol. 2017;6(2):222–233. doi:10.21037/tau.2016.12.04.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aziz EM, Abdelhak K, Hassan FM. Tuberculous prostatitis: mimicking a cancer. Pan Afr Med J. 2016;25:130 doi:10.11604/pamj.2016.25.130.7577.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gonzalez OY, Musher DM, Brar I, et al. Spectrum of bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) infection after intravesical BCG immunotherapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36(2):140–148. doi:10.1086/344908.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim S, Wise G, Schleel P, Khani F, Herr H. Adverse Effects of Intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guerin Therap. AUA Update Series. 2018;37(Lesson 8)
   Google Scholar
• Lamm DL. Efficacy and safety of bacille Calmette-Guérin immunotherapy in superficial bladder cancer. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31 Suppl 3:S86–S90. doi:10.1086/314064.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larsen ES, Nordholm AC, Lillebaek T, Holden IK, Johansen IS. The epidemiology of bacille Calmette-Guérin infections after bladder instillation from 2002 through 2017: a nationwide retrospective cohort study. BJU Int. 2019;124(6):910–916. doi:10.1111/bju.14793.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pérez-Jacoiste Asín MA, Fernández-Ruiz M, López-Medrano F, et al. Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) infection following intravesical BCG administration as adjunctive therapy for bladder cancer: incidence, risk factors, and outcome in a single-institution series and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore). 2014;93(17):236–254. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000000119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marques M, Vazquez D, Sousa S, Mesquita G, Duarte M, Ferreira R. Disseminated Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) infection with pulmonary and renal involvement: A rare complication of BCG immunotherapy. A Case Report and Narrative Review. Pulmonology. 2020;26(6):346–352. doi:10.1016/j.pulmoe.2019.10.001.
   Google Scholar
• Waked R, Choucair J, Chehata N, Haddad E, Saliba G. Intravesical Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) treatment’s severe complications: A single institution review of incidence, presentation and treatment outcome. J Clin Tuberc Other Mycobact Dis. 2020;19:100149. doi:10.1016/j.jctube.2020.100149.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cek M, Lenk S, Naber KG, Members of the Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) Working Group of the European Association of Urology (EAU) Guidelines Office, et al. EAU guidelines for the management of genitourinary tuberculosis. Eur Urol. 2005;48(3):353–362. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2005.03.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gow JG. Genitourinary tuberculosis: a 7-year review. Br J Urol. 1979;51(4):239–244. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410x.1979.tb04700.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Migliori GB, Sotgiu G, Rosales-Klintz S, et al. ERS/ECDC Statement: European Union standards for tuberculosis care, 2017 update. Eur Respir J. 2018;51(5):1702678. doi:10.1183/13993003.02678-2017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma JB, Singh N, Dharmendra S, et al. Six months versus nine months anti-tuberculous therapy for female genital tuberculosis: a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2016;203:264–273. doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2016.05.035.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Syed FF, Mayosi BM. A modern approach to tuberculous pericarditis. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2007;50(3):218–236. doi:10.1016/j.pcad.2007.03.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cherian G, Habashy AG, Uthaman B, Cherian JM, Salama A, Anim JT. Detection and follow-up of mediastinal lymph node enlargement in tuberculous pericardial effusions using computed tomography. Am J Med. 2003;114(4):319–322. doi:10.1016/s0002-9343(02)01521-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun JS, Park KJ, Kang DK. CT findings in patients with pericardial effusion: differentiation of malignant and benign disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2010;194(6):W489–94. doi:10.2214/AJR.09.2599.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agner RC, Gallis HA. Pericarditis: differential diagnostic considerations. Arch Intern Med. 1979;139(4):407–412. doi:10.1001/archinte.139.4.407.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wiysonge CS, Ntsekhe M, Thabane L, et al. Interventions for treating tuberculous pericarditis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;9:CD000526. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD000526.pub2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reuter H, Burgess LJ, Schneider J, Van Vuuren W, Doubell AF. The role of histopathology in establishing the diagnosis of tuberculous pericardial effusions in the presence of HIV. Histopathology. 2006;48(3):295–302. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2559.2005.02320.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tuon FF, Litvoc MN, Lopes MI. Adenosine deaminase and tuberculous pericarditis-a systematic review with meta-analysis. Acta Trop. 2006;99(1):67–74. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2006.07.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strang JI, Kakaza HH, Gibson DG, Girling DJ, Nunn AJ, Fox W. Controlled trial of prednisolone as adjuvant in treatment of tuberculosis constrictive pericarditis in Transkei. Lancet. 1987;2(8573):1418–1422. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(87)91127-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuter H, Burgess LJ, Louw VJ, Doubell AF. The management of tuberculosis pericardial effusion: experience in 233 consecutive patients. Cardiovasc J S Afr. 2007;18(1):20–25.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mayosi BM, Ntsekhe M, Bosch J, IMPI Trial Investigators, et al. Prednisolone and Mycobacterium indicus pranii in tuberculous pericarditis. N Engl J Med. 2014;371(12):1121–1130. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1407380.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gupta V, Shoughy SS, Mahajan S, et al. Clinics of ocular tuberculosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2015;23(1):14–24. doi:10.3109/09273948.2014.986582.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conant MM, Vrasich CR, Wongskhaluang JV, et al. Role of the Infectious Disease Consultant in Management of Patients With Tuberculosis-Associated Ocular Inflammation. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016;3(1):ofv195. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofv195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patel SS, Saraiya NV, Tessler HH, Goldstein DA. Mycobacterial ocular inflammation: delay in diagnosis and other factors impacting morbidity. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2013;131(6):752–758. doi:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2013.71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynn WA, Lightman S. The eye in systemic infection. Lancet. 2004;364(9443):1439–1450. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17228-0.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunningham ET, Jr., Rathinam SR, Albini TA, Chee SP, Zierhut M. Tuberculous uveitis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2015;23(1):2–6. doi:10.3109/09273948.2014.1004016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arora SK, Gupta V, Gupta A, Bambery P, Kapoor GS, Sehgal S. Diagnostic efficacy of polymerase chain reaction in granulomatous uveitis. Tuber Lung Dis. 1999;79(4):229–233. doi:10.1054/tuld.1999.0210.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ang M, Htoon HM, Chee SP. Diagnosis of tuberculous uveitis: clinical application of an interferon-gamma release assay. Ophthalmology. 2009;116(7):1391–1396. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2009.02.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trad S, Bodaghi B, Saadoun D. Update on Immunological Test (Quantiferon-TB Gold) Contribution in the Management of Tuberculosis-Related Ocular Inflammation. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2018;26(8):1192–1199. doi:10.1080/09273948.2017.1332232.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee C, Agrawal R, Pavesio C. Ocular Tuberculosis-A Clinical Conundrum. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2016;24(2):237–242. doi:10.3109/09273948.2014.985387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Figueira L, Fonseca S, Ladeira I, Duarte R. Ocular tuberculosis: Position paper on diagnosis and treatment management. Rev Port Pneumol (2006). 2017;23(1):31–38. doi:10.1016/j.rppnen.2016.10.004.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alvarez GG, Roth VR, Hodge W. Ocular tuberculosis: diagnostic and treatment challenges. Int J Infect Dis. 2009;13(4):432–435. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2008.09.018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gan WL, Jones NP. Serpiginous-like choroiditis as a marker for tuberculosis in a non-endemic area. Br J Ophthalmol. 2013;97(5):644–647. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2012-302918.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ang M, Hedayatfar A, Wong W, Chee SP. Duration of anti-tubercular therapy in uveitis associated with latent tuberculosis: a case-control study. Br J Ophthalmol. 2012;96(3):332–336. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2011-300209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bansal R, Gupta A, Gupta V, Dogra MR, Bambery P, Arora SK. Role of anti-tubercular therapy in uveitis with latent/manifest tuberculosis. Am J Ophthalmol. 2008;146(5):772–779. doi:10.1016/j.ajo.2008.06.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agrawal R, Gupta B, Gonzalez-Lopez JJ, et al. The role of anti-tubercular therapy in patients with presumed ocular tuberculosis. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2015;23(1):40–46. doi:10.3109/09273948.2014.986584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanghvi C, Bell C, Woodhead M, Hardy C, Jones N. Presumed tuberculous uveitis: diagnosis, management, and outcome. Eye (Lond). 2011;25(4):475–480. doi:10.1038/eye.2010.235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lou SM, Montgomery PA, Larkin KL, Winthrop K, Zierhut M, Rosenbaum JT, Uveitis Specialists Study Group Diagnosis and treatment for ocular tuberculosis among uveitis specialists: the international perspective. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2015;23(1):32–39. doi:10.3109/09273948.2014.994784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen SC, Lin MC, Sheu SJ. Incidence and prognostic factor of ethambutol-related optic neuropathy: 10-year experience in southern Taiwan. Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 2015;31(7):358–362. doi:10.1016/j.kjms.2015.05.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Zyl L, Du Plessis J, Viljoen J. Cutaneous tuberculosis overview and current treatment regimens. Tuberculosis (Edinb). 2015;95(6):629–638. doi:10.1016/j.tube.2014.12.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen Q, Chen W, Hao F. Cutaneous tuberculosis: A great imitator. Clin Dermatol. 2019;37(3):192–199. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2019.01.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burgin S, Pomeranz MK, Orbuch P, et al. Mycobacteria and the skin. In: Rom WN, Garay S, eds. Tuberculosis. Toronto: Little, Brown and Company; 2004;593–608.
   Google Scholar
• Delaval L, Goulenok T, Achouh P, et al. New insights on tuberculous aortitis. J Vasc Surg. 2017;66(1):209–215. doi:10.1016/j.jvs.2016.11.045.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu A, Nicol E, Hu Y, Coates A. Tuberculous endocarditis. Int J Cardiol. 2013;167(3):640–645. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.08.009.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hakawi AM, Alrajhi AA. Tuberculosis of the bone marrow: clinico-pathological study of 22 cases from Saudi Arabia. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2006;10(9):1041–1044.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long R, Guzman R, Greenberg H, Safneck J, Hershfield E. Tuberculous mycotic aneurysm of the aorta: review of published medical and surgical experience. Chest. 1999;115(2):522–531. doi:10.1378/chest.115.2.522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agarwal R, Gupta D, Aggarwal AN, Behera D, Jindal SK. Experience with ARDS caused by tuberculosis in a respiratory intensive care unit. Intensive Care Med. 2005;31(9):1284–1287. doi:10.1007/s00134-005-2721-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerolle N, Laanani M, Galicier L, et al. Factors associated with tuberculosis-associated haemophagocytic syndrome: a multicentre case-control study. Int j Tuberc Lung Dis. 2020;24(1):124–130. doi:10.5588/ijtld.19.0856.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Girgis NI, Farid Z, Kilpatrick ME, Sultan Y, Mikhail IA. Dexamethasone adjunctive treatment for tuberculous meningitis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1991;10(3):179–183. doi:10.1097/00006454-199103000-00002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schoeman JF, Van Zyl LE, Laubscher JA, Donald PR. Effect of corticosteroids on intracranial pressure, computed tomographic findings, and clinical outcome in young children with tuberculous meningitis. Pediatrics. 1997;99(2):226–231. doi:10.1542/peds.99.2.226.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dutt AK, Moers D, Stead WW. Short-course chemotherapy for extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Nine years’ experience. Ann Intern Med. 1986;104(1):7–12. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-104-1-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramachandran S, Clifton IJ, Collyns TA, Watson JP, Pearson SB. The treatment of spinal tuberculosis: a retrospective study. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2005;9(5):541–544.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dian S, Yunivita V, Ganiem AR, et al. Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Phase II Dose-Finding Study To Evaluate High-Dose Rifampin for Tuberculosis Meningitis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2018;62(12). doi:10.1128/AAC.01014-18.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yunivita V, Dian S, Ganiem AR, et al. Pharmacokinetics and safety/tolerability of higher oral and intravenous doses of rifampicin in adult tuberculous meningitis patients. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2016;48(4):415–421. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2016.06.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skutil V, Varsa J, Obsitník M. Six-month chemotherapy for urogenital tuberculosis. Eur Urol. 1985;11(3):170–176. doi:10.1159/000472484.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar