Organizing cyber capability across military and intelligence entities: collaboration, separation, or centralization

References

• Backman, Sara. 2021. “Conceptualizing Cyber Crises.” Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 29 (4): 429–438. doi:10.1111/1468-5973.12347.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boeke, Sergei. 2018a. “National Cyber Crisis Management: Different European Approaches.” Governance 31 (3): 449–464. doi:10.1111/gove.12309.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boeke, Sergei. 2018b. “Hackers, Wiz Kids, en Offensieve Cyberoperaties.” Atlantisch Perspectief 42 (5): 27–30.
   Google Scholar
• Buchanan, Ben. 2016. The Cybersecurity Dilemma: hacking, Trust, and Fear between Nations. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Bunk, Joost, and Max Smeets. 2021. “Dutch Cyber Security Strategy.” In Routledge Companion to Global Cyber-Security Strategy, edited by Scott N. Romaniuk and Mary Manjikian, 132–142. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Burton, Joe, and George Christou. 2021. “Bridging the Gap between Cyberwar and Cyberpeace.” International Affairs 97 (6): 1727–1747. doi:10.1093/ia/iiab172.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burkhard, Thierry. 2021. Strategic Vision of the Chief of Defense Staff.
   Google Scholar
• Cavelty, D. Myriam Dunn, and Andreas Wenger. 2020. “Cyber Security Meets Security Politics: Complex Technology, Fragmented Politics, and Networked Science.” Contemporary Security Policy 41 (1): 5–32. doi:10.1080/13523260.2019.1678855.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chesney, Robert. 2020. “Ending the “Dual-Hat” Arrangement for NSA and Cyber Command?” Lawfare, December 20.
   Google Scholar
• Chopin, Olivier. 2017. “Intelligence Reform and the Transformation of the State: The End of a French Exception.” Journal of Strategic Studies 40 (4): 532–553. doi:10.1080/01402390.2017.1326100.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen, K. Kristoffer, and Tobias Liebetrau. 2019. “A New Role for ‘the Public’? Exploring Cyber Security Controversies in the Case of WannaCry.” Intelligence and National Security 34 (3): 395–408. doi:10.1080/02684527.2019.1553704.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claver, Alexander. 2018. “Governance of Cyber Warfare in The Netherlands: an Exploratory Investi- Gation.” The International Journal of Intelligence, Security, and Public Affairs 20 (2): 155–180. doi:10.1080/23800992.2018.1484235.
   Google Scholar
• Commission du Livre blanc sur la défense et la sécurité nationale 2008. Livre Blanc sur la Défense et Sécurité nationale 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Conger, Kate, and Sheera Frenkel. 2021. “Thousands of Microsoft Customers May Have Been Victims of Hack Tied to China.” New York Times, March 6 and August 26.
   Google Scholar
• Crerar, Pippa, Jon Henley, and Patrick Wintour. 2018. “Russia Accused of Cyber-Attack on Chemical Weapons Watchdog.” The Guardian, October 4.
   Google Scholar
• Defence Cyber Command 2019. The Netherlands Armed Forces Doctrine for Military Cyberspace Operations.
   Google Scholar
• Delerue, F. 2020. Cyber Operations and International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge Unitersity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Demchak, C. Chris. 2021. “Five Reasons Not to Split Cyber Command from the NSA Any Time Soon – If Ever.” War on the Rocks, March 5.
   Google Scholar
• Desforges, Alix. 2022. “Separation of Offensive and Defensive Functions: The Originality of the French Cyberdefense Model Called into Question?” In Conflicts, Crimes and Regulations in Cyberspace. Volume 2, edited by Sébastien-Yves Laurent, 63–88. London and Hoboken: ISTE and Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Devanny, Joe, and Tim Stevens. 2021. “What Will Britain’s New Cyber Force Actually do?” War on the Rocks, May 26.
   Google Scholar
• Ducheine, P. A. L., K. L. Arnold, and Pijpers Peter. 2020. “Decision-Making and Parliamentary Control for International Military Cyber Operations by The Netherlands Armed Forces.” In Amsterdam Law School Research Paper No. 2020-07, 1–22. Amsterdam: Amsterdam Center for International Law.
   Google Scholar
• European Union External Action Service 2022. A Strategic Compass for Security and Defence: For a European Union That Protects Its Citizens, Values and Interest and Contributes to International Peace and Security. Bruxelles.
   Google Scholar
• Michael, Fischerkeller. P, and Richard. J. Harknett. 2020. Cyber Persistence Theory, Intelligence Contests and Strategic Competition. Institute for Defense Analyses, Alexandria, Virginia.
   Google Scholar
• Florant, Jean-Baptiste. 2021. “Cyberarmes: La Lutte Informatique Offensive Dans la Manaeuvre Future.” Focus Stratégique n° 100, Ifri.
   Google Scholar
• Forsvarsdepartementet 2014. Forsvarsdepartementets retningslinjer for informasjonssikkerhet og cyberoperasjoner.
   Google Scholar
• Forsvarsdepartementet 2018. Høringsnotat. Forslag til ny lov om Etterretningstjenesten.
   Google Scholar
• Forsvarsdepartementet 2019a. Prop. 1S (2019–2020).
   Google Scholar
• Forsvarsdepartementet 2019b. cyberoperasjoner [cyber operations]. Letter to the author.
   Google Scholar
• Forsvarsdepartementet 2020. Prop. 14 S (2020–2021). Evne til forsvar – vilje til beredskap. Langtidsplan for forsvarssektoren
   Google Scholar
• Flybjerg, Bent. 2006. “Five Misunderstandings about Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (2): 219–245.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gartzke, Erik, and Jon. R. Lindsay. 2015. “Weaving Tangled Webs: offense, Defense, and Deception in Cyberspace.” Security Studies 24 (2): 316–348. doi:10.1080/09636412.2015.1038188.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Géry, Aude. 2020. “The French Cyber Defence Strategy.” Penseemiliterre, March 27.
   Google Scholar
• Gioe, David. V., Michael. S. Goodman, and Time Stevens. 2020. “Intelligence in the Cyber Era: evolution or Revolution?” Political Science Quarterly 135 (2): 191–224. doi:10.1002/polq.13031.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amaelle, Guiton. 2020. “Cyber à la Française: l’attaque et la Défense, de la” Séparation à” L’interaction.” Liberation, January 30.
   Google Scholar
• Guédard, Le Martial. 2020. Gestion de crise et chaînes cyber: organisation européenne et française, Institut des hautes études du ministère de l‘Intérieur. https://www.ihemi.fr/articles/organisation-france-europe-cybersecurite-cyberdefense-V2
   Google Scholar
• Haataja, S. 2019. Cyber Attacks and International Law on the Use of Force – The Turn to Information Ethics. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Harknett, Richard. J, and Max Smeets. 2022. “Cyber Campaigns and Strategic Outcomes.” Journal of Strategic Studies 45 (4): 534–567. doi:10.1080/01402390.2020.1732354.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogeveen, Bart. 2018. A Rare Insight into Cyber Espionage: Dutch Intelligence and Two Russian Bears. Australian Strategic Policy Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobsen, Jeppe. T. 2021. “Cyber Offense in NATO: challenges and Opportunities.” International Affairs 97 (3): 703–720. doi:10.1093/ia/iiab010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liebetrau, Tobias. 2022. “Cyber Conflict Short of War: A European Strategic Vacuum.” European Security 1–20. online first. doi:10.1080/09662839.2022.2031991.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liebetrau, Tobias, and Kristoffer Christensen. 2021. “The Ontological Politics of Cyber Security: Emerging Agencies, Actors, Sites, and Spaces.” European Journal of International Security 6 (1): 25–43. doi:10.1017/eis.2020.10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindsay, Jon. R. 2021. “Cyber Conflict vs. Cyber Command: hidden Dangers in the American Military Solution to a Large-Scale Intelligence Problem.” Intelligence and National Security 36 (2): 260–278. doi:10.1080/02684527.2020.1840746.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matania, Eviatar, Lior Yoffe, and Tal Goldstein. 2017. “Structuring the National Cyber Defence: in Evolution towards a Central Cyber Authority.” Journal of Cyber Policy 2 (1): 16–25. doi:10.1080/23738871.2017.1299193.
   Google Scholar
• Ministère des Armées 2019a. Politique ministérielle de lutte informatique défensive.
   Google Scholar
• Ministère des Armées 2019b. Éléments publics de doctrine militaire de lutte informatique offensive.
   Google Scholar
• Ministère des Armées 2021. Éléments publics de doctrine militaire de lutte informatique d’influence.
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Defense 2015. Defense cyber strategy.
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Defense 2018. Defense cyber strategy.
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Defense 2020. Defence Vision 2035: Fighting for a secure future.
   Google Scholar
• NATO 2022. NATO 2022 Strategic Concept. Madrid.
   Google Scholar
• Newman, H. Lily. 2021. “A Year After the SolarWinds Hack, Supply Chain Threats Still Loom.” Wired, December 8.
   Google Scholar
• Pernik, Piret. 2020. “National Cyber Commands.” In Routledge Companion to Global Cyber-Security Strategy, edited by Scott N. Romaniuk and Mary Manjikian, 186–198. London: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Roscini, M. 2014. Cyber Operations and the Use of Force in International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rovner, Joshua. 2020. “What is an Intelligence Contest?” Texas National Security Review 3 (4): 114–120.
   Google Scholar
• David, Sanger. E, and Nicole Perlroth. 2021. “Pipeline Attack Yields Urgent Lessons About U.S. Cybersecurity.” New York Times, May 14 and June 8.
   Google Scholar
• Secrétariat général de la défense et de la sécurité nationale 2018. Revue stratégique de cyberdéfense.
   Google Scholar
• Secrétariat général de la défense et de la sécurité nationale 2019. Manifeste: Pour l’ANSSI des dix prochaines années - pour l’écosystème de la cybersécurité.
   Google Scholar
• Schmitt, M. 2017. Tallinn Manual 2.0 on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Operations. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Slayton, Rebecca. 2017. “What is the Cyber Offense-Defense Balance? Conceptions, Causes and Assessment.” International Security 41 (3): 72–109. doi:10.1162/ISEC_a_00267.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smeets, Max. 2018. “A Matter of Time: on the Transitory Nature of Cyberweapons.” Journal of Strategic Studies 41 (1-2): 6–32. doi:10.1080/01402390.2017.1288107.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smeets, Max. 2018. “Integrating Offensive Cyber Capabilities: meaning, Dilemmas, and Assessment.” Defence Studies 18 (4): 395–410. doi:10.1080/14702436.2018.1508349.
   Google Scholar
• Smeets, Max. 2019. “NATO Members’ Organizational Path towards Conducting Offensive Cyber Operations: A Framework for Analysis.” Paper presented at the 11th International Conference on Cyber Conflict. Silent Battle, NATO CCD COE Publications, Tallinn.
   Google Scholar
• Smeets, Max. 2021. The Challenges of Military Adaption to the Cyber Domain: A Case Study of the Netherlands Paper presented at the 2021 Conference on Cyber Norms: Governing through crisis. Conflict, crises, and the politics of cyberspace.
   Google Scholar
• Smeets, Max. 2022. “Cyber Arms Transfer: Meaning, Limits, and Implications.” Security Studies 31 (1): 65–91. doi:10.1080/09636412.2022.2041081.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taillat, Stéphane. 2019. “Signaling, Victory, and Strategy in France’s Military Cyber Doctrine.” War on the Rocks, May 8.
   Google Scholar
• Villarreal, Aleandra. 2021. “Russian SolarWinds Hackers Launch Email Attack on Government Agencies.” The Guardian, May 28.
   Google Scholar
• Weiss, Moritz, and Vytautas Jankauskas. 2019. “Securing Cyberspace: How States Design Governance Arrangements.” Governance 32 (2): 259–275. doi:10.1111/gove.12368.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yin, Robert. K. 2014. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar