References
- Brodsky MC, Donahue SP, Vaphiades M, Brandt T. Skew deviation revisited. Surv Ophthalmol. 2006 Mar-Apr;51(2):105–128. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.survophthal.2005.12.008. PMID: 16500212.
- Donahue SP, Lavin PJ, Hamed LM. Tonic ocular tilt reaction simulating a superior oblique palsy: diagnostic confusion with the 3-step test. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999 Mar;117(3):347–352. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.117.3.347. PMID: 10088812.
- Brandt T, Dieterich M. Two types of ocular tilt reaction; the ‘ascending’ pontomedullary VOR-OTR and the ‘descending’ mesencephalic integrator-OTR. Neuro-ophthalmology. 1998;19(2):83–92. doi:https://doi.org/10.1076/noph.19.2.83.3944.
- Dieterich M, Brandt T. The bilateral central vestibular system: its pathways, functions, and disorders. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2015;1343:10–26. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12585.
- Kremmyda O, Frenzel C, Hüfner K, et al. Acute binocular diplopia: peripheral or central? J Neurol. 2020 Dec;267(Suppl1):136–142. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-020-10088-y. Epub 2020 Aug 14. PMID: 32797299; PMCID: PMC7718182.
- Brandt T, Strupp M, Dieterich M. Towards a concept of disorders of “higher vestibular function” Front Integr Neurosci. 2014 Jun 2;8:47. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2014.00047. PMID: 24917796; PMCID: PMC4041089.
- Walter E, Trobe JD. The clinical and imaging profile of skew deviation: a study of 157 cases. J Neuroophthalmol. 2021 Mar 1;41(1):69–76. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/WNO.0000000000000915. PMID: 32235234.
- Diaz-Artiles A, Karmali F. Vestibular precision at the level of perception, eye movements, posture and neurons. Neuroscience. 2021 Aug;468:282–320. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.05.028.
- Wong AMF, Sharpe JA. Cerebellar skew deviation and the torsional vestibuloocular reflex. Neurology. 2005 Aug;65(3):412–419. doi:https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000171860.02355.61.
- Baier B, Dieterich M. Ocular tilt reaction: a clinical sign of cerebellar infarctions? Neurology. 2009 Feb 10;72(6):572–573. doi:https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000342123.39308.32. PMID: 19204270.
- Wong AMF, Sharpe JA. Chapter 17 anatomy and physiology of ocular motor systems. In: Miller NR MD, Newman NJ MD, Biousse V MD, and Kerrison JB MD, eds. Trobe, Jonathan D MD Walsh & Hoyt’s Clinical Neuro-Ophthalmology, 6th Edition (pp. 856–867). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005.
- Curthoys IS. The anatomical and physiological basis of clinical tests of otolith function. A tribute to Yoshio Uchino. Front Neurol. 2020 Oct 20;11:566895. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2020.566895. PMID: 33193004; PMCID: PMC7606994.
- Baier B, Thömke F, Wilting J, Heinze C, Geber C, Dieterich M. A pathway in the brainstem for roll-tilt of the subjective visual vertical: evidence from a lesion-behavior mapping study. J Neurosci. 2012 Oct 24;32(43):14854–14858. doi:https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0770-12.2012. PMID: 23100408; PMCID: PMC6704844.
- Borel L, Lopez C, Péruch P, Lacour M. Vestibular syndrome: a change in internal spatial representation. Neurophysiol Clin. 2008 Dec;38(6):375–389. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucli.2008.09.002. Epub 2008 Oct 7. PMID: 19026958.
- Zwergal A, Rettinger N, Frenzel C, Dieterich M, Brandt T, Strupp M. A bucket of static vestibular function. Neurology. 2009 May 12;72(19):1689–1692. doi:https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181a55ecf. PMID: 19433743.
- Shaban A, Zafar A, Borte B, et al. The bucket test improves detection of stroke in patients with acute dizziness. J Emerg Med. 2021 Apr;60(4):485–494. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.10.052. Epub 2020 Dec 8. PMID: 33308916.
- Brandt T, Dieterich M. Skew deviation with ocular torsion: a vestibular brainstem sign of topographic diagnostic value. Ann Neurol. 1993 May;33(5):528–534. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410330518. PMID: 8498829.
- Roh YR, Hwang JM. Comparison of subjective and objective torsion in patients with acquired unilateral superior oblique muscle palsy. Br J Ophthalmol. 2011 Nov;95(11):1583–1587. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bjo.2010.197046. Epub 2011 Mar 22. PMID: 21427460.
- Dietz E. Ophthalmoplegia: definition and clinical diagnostic techniques. J Binocul Vis Ocul Motil. 2018 Jan-Mar;68(1):4–6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/2576117X.2017.1416239. Epub 2018 Jan 19. PMID: 30196777.
- Picard V. Vertical deviations secondary to supranuclear origins. Am Orthopt J. 2011;61:23–27. doi:https://doi.org/10.3368/aoj.61.1.23. PMID: 22069847.
- Korda A, Zamaro E, Wagner F, et al. Acute vestibular syndrome: is skew deviation a central sign? J Neurol. 2021 Jul 9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-021-10692-6. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 34244842.
- Kushner BJ. Errors in the three-step test in the diagnosis of vertical strabismus. Ophthalmology. 1989 Jan;96(1):127–132. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/s0161-6420(89)32933-2. PMID: 2919044.
- Donahue SP, Lavin PJ, Mohney B, Hamed L. Skew deviation and inferior oblique palsy. Am J Ophthalmol. 2001 Nov;132(5):751–756. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-9394(01)01234-x. PMID: 11704037.
- Biernacki R. Evaluation techniques for paretic vertical strabismus. Am Orthopt J. 2011;61:2–5. doi:https://doi.org/10.3368/aoj.61.1.2. PMID: 22069843.
- Kang H, Lee SJ, Shin HJ, Lee AG. Measuring ocular torsion and its variations using different nonmydriatic fundus photographic methods. PLoS ONE. 2020;15(12):e0244230. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244230.
- Yamadera K, Ishikawa H, Imai A, et al. A novel method for evaluation of ocular torsion angle by optical coherence tomography. Transl Vis Sci Technol. 2020 Feb 25;9(3):27. doi:https://doi.org/10.1167/tvst.9.3.27. PMID: 32742757; PMCID: PMC7354857.
- Parulekar MV, Dai S, Buncic JR, Wong AM. Head position-dependent changes in ocular torsion and vertical misalignment in skew deviation. Arch Ophthalmol. 2008 Jul;126(7):899–905. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/archopht.126.7.899. PMID: 18625934.
- Wong AM, Colpa L, Chandrakumar M. Ability of an upright-supine test to differentiate skew deviation from other vertical strabismus causes. Arch Ophthalmol. 2011 Dec;129(12):1570–1575. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/archophthalmol.2011.335. PMID: 22159676.
- Lemos J, Subei A, Sousa M, et al. Differentiating acute and subacute vertical strabismus using different head positions during the upright-supine test. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2018 Apr 1;136(4):322–328. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2017.6796. PMID: 29450486; PMCID: PMC5876849.
- Khan S, Chang R. Anatomy of the vestibular system: a review. NeuroRehabilitation. 2013;32(3):437–443. doi:https://doi.org/10.3233/NRE-130866. PMID: 23648598.
- Shemesh AA, Zee DS. Eye movement disorders and the cerebellum. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2019 Nov;36(6):405–414. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/WNP.0000000000000579. PMID: 31688323; PMCID: PMC6986321.
- Yoo H, Mihaila DM. Neuroanatomy, vestibular pathways [Updated 2020 Nov 22]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557380/
- Kirsch V, Keeser D, Hergenroeder T, et al. Structural and functional connectivity mapping of the vestibular circuitry from human brainstem to cortex. Brain Struct Funct. 2016 Apr;221(3):1291–1308. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-014-0971-x. Epub 2015 Jan 1. PMID: 25552315.
- Brandt T, Dieterich M. Vestibular syndromes in the roll plane: topographic diagnosis from brainstem to cortex. Ann Neurol. 1994 Sep;36(3):337–347. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410360304. PMID: 8080241.
- Zwergal A, Dieterich M. Vertigo and dizziness in the emergency room. Curr Opin Neurol. 2020 Feb;33(1):117–125. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0000000000000769. PMID: 31743236.
- Tarnutzer AA, Dieterich M. Bedside examination of the vestibular and ocular motor system in patients with acute vertigo or dizziness. Clin Transl Neurosci. 2019 July;3(2):2514183X1988615. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/2514183X19886158.
- Kattah JC. Use of HINTS in the acute vestibular syndrome. An overview. Stroke Vasc Neurol. 2018 Jun 23;3(4):190–196. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/svn-2018-000160. PMID: 30637123; PMCID: PMC6312070.
- Shemesh AA, Gold DR. Dizziness and vertigo: the skillful examination. J Neuroophthalmol. 2020 Sep;40(3):e49–e61. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/WNO.0000000000000980. PMID: 32804459.
- Kattah JC, Talkad AV, Wang DZ, Hsieh YH, Newman-Toker DE. HINTS to diagnose stroke in the acute vestibular syndrome: three-step bedside oculomotor examination more sensitive than early MRI diffusion-weighted imaging. Stroke. 2009 Nov;40(11):3504–3510. doi:https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.551234. Epub 2009 Sep 17. PMID: 19762709; PMCID: PMC4593511.
- Newman-Toker DE, Kerber KA, Hsieh YH, et al. HINTS outperforms ABCD2 to screen for stroke in acute continuous vertigo and dizziness. Acad Emerg Med. 2013 Oct;20(10):986–996. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/acem.12223. PMID: 24127701.
- Evangelista VRP, Mermelstein SA, Da Silva MM, Kaski D. Bedside video-ophthalmoscopy as an aid in the diagnosis of central vestibular syndromes. J Neurol. 2021 Feb 4. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-020-10389-2. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 33538908.
- Celebisoy N. Acute vestibular syndrome: clinical head impulse test versus video head impulse test. J Neurol. 2018 Oct;265(Suppl1):44–47. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-018-8804-0. Epub 2018 Mar 5. PMID: 29508131.
- Otero-Millan J, Treviño C, Winnick A, Zee DS, Carey JP, Kheradmand A. The video ocular counter-roll (vOCR): a clinical test to detect loss of otolith-ocular function. Acta Otolaryngol. 2017 Jun;137(6):593–597. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00016489.2016.1269364. Epub 2017 Jan 13. PMID: 28084887; PMCID: PMC5502765.
- Kim SH, Park SH, Kim HJ, Kim JS. Isolated central vestibular syndrome. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2015 Apr;1343:80–89. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12712. Epub 2015 Mar 3. PMID: 25735822.
- Gaillard F, Iqbal S. Lateral medullary syndrome. Reference article, Radiopaedia.org. https://radiopaedia.org/articles/12193. accessed September 16, 2021.
- Choi WY, Gold DR. Ocular motor and vestibular disorders in brainstem disease. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2019 Nov;36(6):396–404. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/WNP.0000000000000593. PMID: 31688322.
- Lee AG, Brazis PW. Localizing forms of nystagmus: symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2006 Sep 6;6(5):414–420. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-996-0022-y. PMID: 16928352.
- Serra A, Chisari CG, Matta M. Eye movement abnormalities in multiple sclerosis: pathogenesis, modeling, and treatment. Front Neurol. 2018 Feb 5;9:31. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2018.00031. PMID: 29467711; PMCID: PMC5807658.
- Gudlavalleti A, Tenny S. Cerebellar neurological signs [Updated 2020 Nov 22]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556080/
- Ohia T, Hayashia S, Kurokawab L, Kobayashib N, Ueda N. Clinical significance of alternating skew deviation as the diagnostic sign for the brainstem or cerebellar lesion. J Neurol Sci. 2017 October;381:149–150. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2017.08.440.
- Moon Y, Eah KS, Lee EJ, et al. Neuro-ophthalmologic features and outcomes of thalamic infarction: a single-institutional 10-year experience. J Neuroophthalmol. 2021 Mar 1;41(1):29–36. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/WNO.0000000000000864. PMID: 31851027.
- Obrero-Gaitán E, Manrique-Navarro M, Lérida-Ortega MÁ, Rodríguez-Almagro D, Osuna-Pérez MC, Lomas-Vega R. Misperception of visual verticality in patients with primary headache disorders: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Brain Sci. 2020 Sep 24;10(10):664. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10100664. PMID: 32987639; PMCID: PMC7598580.
- Fujimoto C, Kamogashira T, Takenouchi S, et al. Utriculo-ocular pathway dysfunction is more frequent in vestibular migraine than probable vestibular migraine. J Neurol. 2020 Aug;267(8):2340–2346. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-020-09851-y. Epub 2020 Apr 24. PMID: 32333164.
- Sharma M, Hunter DG. Diplopia after strabismus surgery. Semin Ophthalmol. 2018 1;33:102–107. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/08820538.2017.1353827. Epub 2017 Dec 1. PMID: 29193991.
- Tamhankar MA, Luo S, Kwong B, Pistilli M. Benefits and side effects of prisms in the management of diplopia in adults: a prospective study. J AAPOS. 2021 Apr;25(2):85.e1–85.e6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaapos.2020.11.018. Epub 2021 Apr 24. PMID: 33901672.
- Brodsky MC. Surgical treatment of vertical ocular motility disorders of supranuclear origin. Am Orthopt J. 2011;61:28–33. doi:https://doi.org/10.3368/aoj.61.1.28. PMID: 22069848.
- Dagi LR, Velez FG, Archer SM, et al. Adult strabismus preferred practice pattern®. Ophthalmology. 2020 Jan;127(1):182–298. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2019.09.023. Epub 2019 Sep 25. PMID: 31757496.
- Wong AM. Understanding skew deviation and a new clinical test to differentiate it from trochlear nerve palsy. J AAPOS. 2010 Feb;14(1):61–67. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaapos.2009.11.019. PMID: 20227626; PMCID: PMC5154745.
- Sharpe JA, Kumar S, Sundaram AN. Ocular torsion and vertical misalignment. Curr Opin Neurol. 2011 Feb;24(1):18–24. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0b013e328341e2b2. PMID: 21150599.
- Pérennou D, Piscicelli C, Barbieri G, Jaeger M, Marquer A, Barra J. Measuring verticality perception after stroke: why and how? Neurophysiol Clin. 2014 Jan 1;44:25–32. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucli.2013.10.131. Epub 2013 Nov 1. PMID: 24502902.
- Dieterich M, Brandt T. Perception of verticality and vestibular disorders of balance and falls. Front Neurol. 2019 Apr 3;10:172. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.00172. PMID: 31001184; PMCID: PMC6457206.