Publication Cover
Sustainable Environment
An international journal of environmental health and sustainability
Volume 9, 2023 - Issue 1
886
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

Outdoor and indoor particle air pollution and its health consequences in African cities: New evidence and an exhortation

, , &
Article: 2265729 | Received 19 Feb 2023, Accepted 27 Sep 2023, Published online: 12 Oct 2023

References

  • Abdel-Salam, M. M. M. (2013). Indoor particulate matter in urban residences of indoor particulate matter in urban residences of Alexandria, Egypt. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 63(8), 956–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2013.801374
  • Abera, A., Friberg, J., Isaxon, C., Jerrett, M., Malmqvist, E., Sjöström, C., Taj, T., & Vargas, A. M. (2020). Air quality in Africa: Public health implications. Annual Review of Public Health, 42(1), 193–210. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-100119-113802
  • Abulude, F., Arifalo, K., Kenni, A., & Akinnusotu, A. (2022). Air quality index levels of particulate matter inYenogua, Nigeria. Journal of Geography, 22(2), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.17509/gea.v22i2.46307
  • Adarge, S. D., Areba, A. S., Kabthymer, R. H., Legesse, M. T., & Kanno, G. G. (2021). Is indoor air pollution from different fuel types associated with the anemia status of pregnant women in Ethiopia?. Journal of Primary Care & Community Health, 12(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/21501327211034374
  • Ahamad, M. G., Tanin, F., & Shrestha, N. (2021). Household smoke-exposure risks associated with cooking fuels and cooking places in Tanzania: A cross-sectional analysis of demographic and health survey data. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(5), 2534. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052534
  • Allaouat, S., Tuomi, T.-Y., Tiittanen, P., Turunen, A. W., Siponen, T., Kukkonen, J., Kangas, L., Kauhaniemi, M., Aarnio, M., Ngandu, T., & Lanki, T. (2021). Long term exposure to ambient fine particulate matter originating from traffic and residential wood combustion and the prevalence of depression. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 75(11), 1111–1116. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2021-216772
  • Alli, A., Sun, X., Wang, J., Alli, A. S., Clark, S. N., Hughes, A., Nimo, J., Bedford-Moses, J., Baah, S., Wang, J., Vallarino, J., Agyemang, E., Barratt, B., Beddows, A., Kelly, F., Owusu, G., Baumgartner, J., Brauer, M., & Ezzati, M. (2021). Spatial-temporal patterns of ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon (BC) pollution in Accra ##. Environmental Research Letters, 16(7), 74013. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac074a
  • Amegah, K., Dakuu, G., Pierpaolo, M., & Jaakkola, J. (2022). Particulate matter pollution at traffic hotspots of Accra, Ghana: Levels, exposure experiences of street traders, and associated respiratory and cardiovascular symptoms. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology, 32(333–342), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-021-00357-x
  • Andarge, S. D., Areba, A. S., Kabthymer, R. H., Legesse, M. T., & Kanno, G. G. (2021). Is indoor air pollution from different fuel types associated with the anemia status of pregnant women in Ethiopia? Journal of Primary Care and Community Health, 12, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/21501327211034374
  • Armo-Annor, D., Colecraft, E. K., Adu-Afarwuah, S., Christian, A. K., & Jones, A. D. (2021). Risk of anaemia among women engaged in biomass-based fish smoking as their primary livelihood in the central region of Ghana: A comparative cross-sectional study. BMC Nutrition, 7(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40795-021-00456-w
  • Awokola, B. I., Okello, G., Mortimer, K. J., Jewell, C. P., Erhart, A., & Semple, S. (2020). Measuring air quality for advocacy in Africa (MA3): Feasibility and practicality of longitudinal ambient PM2.5 measurement using low-cost sensors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(19), 7243. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197243
  • Ayetor, G. K., Mbonigaba, I., Ampofo, J., & Sunnu, A. (2021). Investigating the state of road vehicle emissions in Africa: A case study of Ghana and Rwanda. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 11(February), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2021.100409
  • Ba, A. N., Cazier, F., Verdin, A., Garcon, G., Cabral, M., Courcot, L., Diouf, A., Courcot, D., Gualtieri, M., & Fall, M. (2018). Physicochemical characterisation and in vitro inflammation and oxidative potency of atmospheric particles collected in Dakar city, Senegal. Environmental Pollution, 18, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.11.026
  • Bagula, H., Olaniyan, T., De Hoogh, K., Saucy, A., Parker, B., Leaner, J., Röösli, M., & Dalvie, M. A. (2021). Ambient air pollution and cardiorespiratory outcomes amongst adults residing in four informal settlements in the Western Province of South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Research and Pubic Health, 18(24), 13306. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182413306
  • Bickton, F. M., Ndeketa, L., Sibande, G. T., Nkeramahame, J., Payesa, C., & Milanzi, E. B. (2020). Household air pollution and under-five mortality in sub-Saharan Africa: An analysis of 14 demographic and health surveys. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 4(67), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-020-00902-4
  • Bontempi, E., & Coccia, M. (2021). International trade as critical parameter of COVID-19 spread that outclasses demographic, economic, environmental, and pollution factors. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 4(67), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/jenvres.2021.111514
  • Bounakhla, Y., Benchrif, A., Costabile, F., Tahri, M., Gourch, B. E., Kafssaoui, E., Hassan, E., Zahry, F., & Bounakhla, M. (2023). Relationships with meteorological Variables in an urban area in Northwestern Morocco. Atmopshere, 14(1), 162. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14010162
  • Cai, Y. S., Gibson, H., Ramakrishnan, R., Mamouei, M., & Rahimi, K. (2021). Ambient air pollution and respiratory health in sub-Saharan African children: A cross-sectional analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Pubic Health, 18(18), 9729. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189729
  • Chen, D., Sun, X., & Cheke, R. A. (2023). Inferring a causal relationship between environmental factors and respiratory infections using convergent cross-mapping. Entropy, 25(11261017), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/e25050807
  • Choi, S. W., & Kim, B. H. S. (2021). Applying PCA to deep learning forecasting models for predicting ? Sustainability, 13(3726), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073726
  • Coccia, M. (2020a). The effects of atmospheric stability with low wind speed and of air pollution on the accelerated transmission dynamics of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 78(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2020.1802937
  • Coccia, M. (2020b). Factors determining the diffusion of COVID-19 and suggested strategy to prevent future accelerated viral infectivity similar to COVID. Science of the Total Environment, 729(138474), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138474
  • Coccia, M. (2021). High health expenditures and low exposure of population to air pollution as critical factors that can reduce fatality rate in COVID-19 pandemic crisis: A global analysis. Environmental Research, 199, 111339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.111339
  • Coccia, M. (2023). Sources, diffusion and prediction in COVID-19 pandemic: Lessons learned to face next health emergency. AIMS Public Health, 10(1), 105–128. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2023012
  • Daffe, M. L., Thiam, S., Bah, F., Ndong, A., Cabral, M., & Diop, C. (2022). Household level of air pollution and its impact on the occurrence of acute respiratory illness among children under five: Secondary analysis of demographic and health survey in West Africa. BMC Public Health, 22(2327), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14611-w
  • Dida, G. O., Lutta, P. O., Abuom, P. O., Mestrovic, T., & Anyona, D. N. (2022). Factors predisposing women and children to indoor air pollution in rural villages, Western Kenya. Archives of Public Health, 80(45), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-022-00791-9
  • Dominick, D., Wilson, S. R., Paton-Walsh, C., Humphries, R., Guérette, A., Keywood, M., Kubistin, D., & Marwick, B. (2018). Characteristics of airborne particle size distribution in a coastal - urban environment. Atmospheric Environment, 186, 256–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.05.031
  • Dotse, S.-Q., Asane, J. K., Ofosu, F. G., & Aboh, I. J. K. (2012). Particulate matter and black carbon concentration levels in Ashaiman, a semi-urban area of Ghana, 2008. Research Journal of Environmental and Earth Sciences, 4(1), 20–25.
  • Edlund, K. K., Killman, F., Moln, P., Boman, J., Stockfelt, L., & Wichmann, J. (2021). Health risk assessment of PM2.5 and PM2.5-bound trace elements in Thohoyandou, South Africa. International Journal of Research and Public Health, 18(1359), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031359
  • Eghomwanre, A. F., Oguntoke, O., & Taiwo, A. M. (2022). Levels of indoor particulate matter and association with asthma in children in Benin city, Nigeria. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 194(467). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-10135-3
  • Emekwuru, N., & Ejohwomu, O. (2023). Temperature, humidity and air pollution relationships during a period of rainy and dry seasons in Lagos, West Africa. Cimate, 11(113), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli11050113
  • Enotoriuwa, R. U., Nwachukwu, E. O., & Ugbebor, J. N. (2016). Assessment of particulate matter concentration among land use types in obigbo and environs in Rivers state Nigeria. International Journal of Civil Engineering & Technology, 7(3), 252–261.
  • Fallahzadeh, A., Tehrani, Y. S., Sheikhy, A., Ghamari, S. H., Mohammadi, E., Moghaddam, S. S., Esfahani, Z., Nasserinejad, M., & Shobeiri, P. (2022). The burden of chronic respiratory disease and attributable risk factors in North Africa and Middle East: Findings from global burden of disease study(GBD) 2019. Respiratory Research, 23(268), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12931-022-02187-3
  • Feuyit, G., Nzali, S., Lambi, J. N., & Laminsi, S. (2019). Air quality and human health risk Assessment in the residential areas at the proximity of the Nkolfoulou Metropolis, Cameroon landfill in Yaounde. Journal of Chemistry, 2019(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/3021894 3021894
  • Gaita, S. M., Boman, J., Gatari, M. J., Pettersson, J. B. C., & Janhäll, S. (2014). Source apportionment and seasonal variation of PM2.5 in a sub-Saharan African city: Nairobi, Kenya. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 14(1), 9977–9991. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-9977-2014
  • Glenn, B. E., Espira, L. M., Larson, M. C., & Larson, P. S. (2022). Ambient air pollution and non ‑ communicable respiratory illness in sub ‑ Saharan Africa: A systematic review of the literature. Environmental Health, 21(40), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-022-00852-0
  • Gnamien, S., Yoboué, V., Liousse, C., Ossohou, M., Keita, S., Bahino, J., Siélé, S., & Diaby, L. (2020). Particulate pollution in Korhogo and Abidjan (Cote d ’ Ivoire) during the dry season. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 21(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2020.05.0201
  • Hag, G., & Schwela, D. (2012). Transport and environment in sub-Saharan Africa. Transport and Environment Science Technology Network, 1–80. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gary_Haq/publication/263969502_Transport_and_Environment_in_Sub-Saharan_Africa/links/00b7d53c77bcc603fc000000.pdf
  • Hamatui, N., & Beynon, C. (2017). Particulate matter and respiratory symptoms among adults living in Windhoek, Namibia: A cross sectional descriptive study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Pubic Health, 14(110), 4–6. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14020110
  • Health Effects Institute. (2022) . The state of air quality and health impacts in Africa. Health Effects Institute Publication.
  • Hitchcock, G., Conlan, B., & Kay, D. (2014). Air quality and road transport impacts and solutions. RAC Foundatiuons, 1–139. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.433.7351&rep=rep1&type=pdf
  • Hua, J., Yin, Y., Peng, L., Du, L., Geng, F., & Zhu, L. (2014). Acute effects of black carbon and PM 2. 5 on children asthma admissions: A time-series study in a Chinese city. Science of the Total Environment, 481, 433–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.02.070
  • Huneeus, N., Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y., Griesfeller, J., Prospero, J., Kinne, S., Bauer, S., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Fillmore, D., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Grini, A., Horowitz, L., Koch, D. … Takemura, T. (2011). Global dust model intercomparison in AeroCom phase 1. Atmopsheric Chemistry and Physics, 11(15), 7781–7816. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-11-7781-2011
  • Hussein, T., Saleh, S. S. A., Dos Santos, V. N., Abdullah, H., & Boor, B. E. (2019). Black carbon and particulate matter concentrations in Eastern Mediterranean urban conditions: An assessment based on integrated stationary and mobile observations. Atmosphere, 10(6), 323. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10060323
  • Ibeneme, S. C., Ativie, R. N., Ibeneme, G. C., Myezwa, H., Ezuma, A. D., Nnamani, A., Ezeofor, S., Nwankwo, M. J., Ettu, T. U., Nwosu, A. O., & Okoye, I. J. (2022). Evidence of seasonal changes in airborne particulate matter concentration and occupation‑specific variations in pulmonary function and haematological parameters among some workers in Enugu Southeast Nigeria: A randomized cross sectional observational stud. Archives of Public Health, 80(213), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-022-00967-3
  • Irankunda, E., & Gasore, J. (2021). Assessing the effects of household wood burning on particulate matter in Rwanda. International Journal of Sustainable Energy and Environmental Research, 10(1), 29–37. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.13.2021.101.29.37
  • Jelili, M. O., Gbadegesin, A. S., & Alabi, A. T. (2020). Comparative analysis of indoor and outdoor particulate matter concentrations and air quality in Ogbomoso, Nigeria. Journal of Health and Pollution, 10(28), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.5696/2156-9614-10.28.201205
  • Kabera, T., Bartington, S., Uwanyirigira, C., & Pope, F. (2020). Indoor PM2.5 characteristics and CO concentration in households using biomass fuel in Kigali, Rwanda. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 77(6), 998–1011. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2020.1732067
  • Kanee, R. B., Adeyemi, A., Edokpa, D. O., & Ede, P. N. (2020). Particulate matter based air quality index estimate for Abuja, Nigeria: Implications for health. Journal of Geoscience and Environmental Protection, 8(5), 313–321. https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2020.85019
  • Kansiime, W. K., Mugambe, R. K., Atusingwize, E., Wafula, S. T., Nsereko, V., Ssekamatte, T., Nalugya, A., Coker, E. S., Ssempebwa, J. C., & Isunju, J. B. (2022). Use of biomass fuels predicts indoor particulate matter and carbon monoxide concentrations ; evidence from an informal urban settlement in Fort Portal city, Uganda. BMC Public Health, 22(1723), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14015-w
  • Katoto, P. D. M. C., Byamungu, L., Brand, A. S., Mokaya, J., Strijdom, H., Goswami, N., De Boever, P., Nawrot, T. S., & Nemery, B. (2019). Ambient air pollution and health in sub-Saharan Africa: Current evidence, perspectives and a call to action. Environmental Research, 173, 174–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.03.029
  • Khadidja, N., Mhamed, M., Lazreg, B., & Titarenko, O. V. (2019). Spatial assessment of seasonal changes in pollution of the air ground layer with aerosol particles in school yards of Tiaret city, Algeria. Journal of Geography and Geoecology, 28(1), 140–147. https://doi.org/10.15421/111915
  • Kouao, A., N’datchoh, E., Yoboue, V., Silue, S., & Attoh, H. (2019). Exposure to indoor and outdoor air pollution and prevalence of asthma in children under 5 years (Abidjan, Cote d ’ Ivoire). Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management, March 2021. https://doi.org/10.22034/gjesm.2019.02.00
  • Kouao, A. K. R., N’datchoh, E. T., Yoboue, V., Silue, S., Attoh, H., Coulibaly, M., & Robins, T. (2018). Exposure to indoor and outdoor air pollution among children under five years old in an urban area. Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management, 5(2), 191–202. https://doi.org/10.22034/gjesm.2019.02.00
  • Kumar, P., Hama, S., Nogueira, T., Alaa, R., Brand, V. S., Fatima, M., De Asfaw, A., Hama, K., Cao, S., El-Gendy, A., Islam, S., Jeba, F., Khare, M., Henry, S., Martinez, J., Meng, M., Morawska, L., Muula, A. S. … Osano, P. (2021). In-car particulate matter exposure across ten global cities. Science of the Total Environment, 750, 750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141395
  • Kumie, A., Worku, A., Tazu, Z., Tefera, W., Asfaw, A., Boja, G., Mekashu, M., Siraw, D., Teferra, S., Zacharias, K., Patz, J., Samet, J., & Berhane, K. (2021). Fine particulate pollution concentration in Addis Ababa exceeds the WHO guideline value. Environmental Epidemiology, 5(3), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/EE9.0000000000000155
  • Kwon, H. (2020). Ultra fine particles: Unique physicochemical properties relevant to health and disease. Experimental and Molecular Medicine, 52(3), 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-0405-1
  • Landrigan, P. J., Fuller, R., Acosta, N. J. R., Adeyi, O., Arnold, R., Basu, N. N., Baldé, A. B., Bertollini, R., Fuster, V., Greenstone, M., Haines, A., Hanrahan, D., Hunter, D., Khare, M., Krupnick, A., Lanphear, B., Lohani, B., Martin, K., Mathiasen, K. V., & Steiner, A. (2017). The Lancet Commission on pollution and health. The Lancet Commissions 6736(17). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)32345-0
  • Larson, P. S., Espira, L., Glenn, B. E., Larson, M. C., Crowe, C. S., Jang, S., & Neill, M. S. O. (2022). Long-term PM2.5 exposure is associated with symptoms of acute respiratory infections among children under five years of age in Kenya, 2014. International Journal of Environmental Research and Pubic Health, 19(2525), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052525
  • Lassman, W., Pierce, R., Bangs, E. J., Sullivan, A. P., Ford, B., Tsidu, G. M., Sherman, J. P., Collett, L., & Bililign, S. (2020). Using low-cost measurement systems to investigate air quality: A case study in Palapye, Botswana. Atmosphere, 11(583), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060583
  • Lei, J., Chen, R., Liu, C., Zhu, Y., & Xue, X. (2023). Fine and coarse particulate air pollution and hospital admissions for a wide range of respiratory diseases: A nationwide case-crossover study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 2023(3), 715–726. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyad056
  • Le, N. H., Ly, B., Thai, P. K., Pham, G., Ngo, I., Do, V., Le, T. T., Nhu, L. V., Son, H. D., Nguyen, Y. T., Pham, D. H., & Vu, T. V. (2021). Assessing the impact of traffic emissions on fine particulate matter and carbon monoxide levels in Hanoi through COVID-19 social distancing periods. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 21(10), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.210081
  • Lepeule, J., Laden, F., Dockery, D., & Schwartz, J. (2012). Chronic exposure to fine particles and mortality: An extended follow-up of the Harvard six cities study from 1974 to 2009. Environmental Health Perspectives, 120(7), 965–970. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104660
  • Marzouk, M., & Atef, M. (2022). Assessment of indoor air quality in academic buildings using IOT and deep learning. Sustainability, 14(12), 7015–7019. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14127015
  • Mcfarlane, C., Isevulambire, P. K., Lumbuenamo, R. S., Murphy, A., Ndinga, E., Dhammapala, R., Jin, X., Mcneill, V. F., & Malings, C. (2020). First measurements of ambient PM2.5 in Kinshasa, democratic Republic of Congo and Brazzaville, Republic of Congo using field-calibrated low-cost sensors. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 21(7), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.200619
  • Merabet, H., Kerbachi, R., Mihalopoulos, N., Stavroulas, I., Kanakidou, M., & Yassaa, N. (2019). Measurement of atmospheric black carbon in some South Mediterranean cities: Seasonal variations and source apportionment. Clean Air Journal, 29(2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.17159/caj/2019/29/2.7500
  • Millar, D. A., Kapwata, T., Kunene, Z., Mogotsi, M., Wernecke, B., Garland, R. M., Mathee, A., Theron, L., Levine, D. T., Ungar, M., Batini, C., John, C., & Wright, C. Y. (2022). Respiratory health among adolescents living in the highveld air pollution priority area in South Africa. BMC Nutrition, 2136(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14497-8
  • Mlambo, C., Ngonisa, P., Ntshangase, B., Ndlovu, N., & Mvuyana, B. (2023). Air pollution and health in Africa: The burden falls on children. Economics, 11(196), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies11070196
  • Monoson, A., Schott, E., Ard, K., Pannu, S., & Gowdy, K. M. (2023). Air pollution and respiratory infections: The past, present, and future. Toxicological Sciences, 192(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfad003
  • Moradi, M., Mokhtari, A., Mohammadi, M. J., & Niri, M. V. (2022). Estimation of long-term and short-term health effects attributed to PM2.5 standard pollutants in the air of Ardabil (using air Q + model). Environmental Science and Pollution, 2022(15), 21508–21516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-17303-x
  • Muindi, K., Kimani-Murage, E., Egondi, T., & Rocklov, J. (2016). Household air pollution: Sources and exposure levels to fine particulate matter in Nairobi Slums. Toxics, 4(12), 12–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics4030012
  • Mulenga, D., Nyirenda, H. T., Mwila, P., Chileshe, C. M., & Siziya, S. (2018). Study of indoor PM2.5 and volatile organic compounds concentration in selected rural and urban areas of Zambia. Journal of Environmental Pollution and Human Health, 6(2), 62–67. https://doi.org/10.12691/jephh-6-2-3
  • Musyoka, D. (2022). A descriptive assessment of household air pollution in rural kitchens in Kenya. Atmopshere, 13(2115), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13122115
  • Naidja, L., Ali-Khodja, H., & Khardi, S. (2018). Sources and levels of particulate matter in North African and sub-Saharan cities: A literature review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(13), 12303–12328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-1715-x
  • Nakora, N., Byamugisha, D., & Birungi, G. (2020). Indoor air quality in rural Southwestern Uganda: Particulate matter, heavy metals and carbon monoxide in kitchens using charcoal fuel in Mbarara Municipality. SN Applied Sciences, 2(2037). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03800-0
  • Nejjari, C., Marfak, A., Rguig, A., & Maaroufi, A. (2021). Ambient air pollution and emergency department visits among children and adults in Casablanca, Morocco. Public Health, 8(2), 285–302. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2021022
  • Njee, R. M., Meliefste, K., Malebo, H. M., & Hoek, G. (2016). Spatial variability of ambient air pollution concentration in Dar es Salaam. Science and Education Publishing, 4(4), 83–90. https://doi.org/10.12691/jephh-4-4-2
  • Nkosi, V., Wichmann, J., & Voyi, K. (2017). Indoor and outdoor PM 10 levels at schools located near mine dumps in Gauteng and North West Provinces, South Africa. BMC Public Health, 17(42), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3950-8
  • Novela, R. J., Gitari, W. M., Chikoore, H., Molnar, P., Mudzielwana, R., & Wichmann, J. (2020). Chemical characterization of fine particulate matter, source apportionment and long-range transport clusters in Thohoyandou, South Africa. Cleaner Air Journal, 2015(2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.17159/caj/2020/30/2.8735
  • Nsoh, M., Mankollo, B. O. Y., Ebongue, M., Cyprien, K. N., Likeng, J. L. N., Islam, S. M. S., Collier, A., Tsoka-Gwegweni, J. M., & Cumber, S. N. (2019). Acute respiratory infection related to air pollution in Bamenda, north west region of Cameroon. Pan African Medical Journal, 32, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2019.32.99.15228
  • Nti, A., Arko-Mensah, J., Botwe, P. K., Dwomoh, D., Kwarteng, L., Takyi, S. A., Acquah, A. A., Tettey, P., Basu, N., Batterman, S., Robins, T. G., & Fobil, J. N. (2020). Effect of particulate matter exposure on respiratory health of e-waste workers at Agbogbloshie, Accra, Ghana. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3042), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17093042
  • Núñez-Delgado, A., Bontempi, E., Coccia, M., Kumar, M., Farkas, K., & Domingo, J. L. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 and other pathogenic microorganisms in the environment. Environmental Research, 2021, 111606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.111606
  • Ofosu, F. G., Aboh, I. J. K., & Bamford, S. A. (2016). Ambient air PM10 particulate levels at Ashaiman Near Tema in Ghana. British Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 12(4), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.9734/BJAST/2016/19232
  • Olaniyan, T., Dalvie, M., & Jeebhay, M. (2015). Ambient pollution and childhood asthma: A review of south African epidemiological studies. Current Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 28(2), 122–127.
  • Onyango, S., Parks, B., Anguma, S., & Meng, Q. (2019). Spatio-temporal variation in the concentration of inhalable particulate matter (PM10) in Uganda. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(1752), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101752
  • Opara, A. I., Akaolisa, C. Z., Akakuru, C. O., & Udoka, A. (2021). Particulate matter exposure and non-cancerous inhalation health risk assessment of major dumpsites of Owerri metropolis, Nigeria. Environmental Analysis Health and Toxocology, 36(4), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.5620/eaht.2021025
  • Otse, M., Agbaji, N., Nwokem, N., & Funtua, A. (2020). Assessment of level of air pollutants and particulate matter within Abuja Metropolis, Nigeria. Nigerian Research Journal of Chemical Sciences, 8(2), 28–39.
  • Ouarma, I., Nana, B., Haro, K., Béré, A., & Koulidiati, J. (2020). Assessment of pollution levels of suspended particulate matter on an hourly and a daily time scale in West African cities: Case study of Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Journal of Geoscience and Environmental Protection, 8(11), 119–138. https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2020.811007
  • Piddock, K. C., Gordon, S. B., Ngwira, A., Msukwa, M., Davis, K. J., Nyirenda, M. J., & Mortimer, K. (2016). Europe PMC Funders group Europe PMC Funders author manuscripts a cross-sectional study of household biomass fuel use among a periurban population in Malawi. Europe PMC Founder Group, 11(6), 915–924. https://doi.org/10.1513/AnnalsATS.201311-413OC
  • Pope, F. D., Gatari, M., Ng, D., Poynter, A., & Blake, R. (2018). Airborne particulate matter monitoring in Kenya using calibrated low-cost sensors. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 18(20), 15403–15418. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-15403-2018
  • Prabhu, V., Singh, P., Kulkarni, P., & Sreekanth, V. (2022). Characteristics and health risk assessment of fine particulate matter and surface ozone: Results from Bengaluru, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 194(3). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-09852-6
  • Safo-Adu, G., Attiogbe, F., Emahi, I., Ofosu, F. G., Attiogbe, F., Emahi, I., & Gorman, F. (2023). A review of the sources, distribution sequences, and health risks associated with exposure to atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons hydrocarbons. Cogent Engineering, 10(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311916.2023.2199511
  • Samantha, F., Bellinger, D., Cropper, M. L., Kumar, P., Binagwaho, A., Koudenoukpo, J. B., Park, Y., Taghian, G., & Landrigan, P. J. (2021). Air pollution and development in Africa: Impacts on health, the economy and human capital. Lancet Planet Health, 5(1), e681–e688. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00201-1
  • Sangkharat, K., Fisher, P., Thomas, G. N., Thornes, J., & Pope, F. D. (2019). The impact of air pollutants on ambulance dispatches: A systematic review and meta analysis of acute effects. Environmental Pollution, 197(2021), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.06.065
  • Sarpong, S. A., Donkoh, R. F., Konnuba, J. K., Ohene-Agyei, C., & Lee, Y. (2021). Analysis of PM2.5, PM10 and Total suspended particle exposure in the Tema Metropolitan area of Ghana. Atmosphere, 12(700), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12060700
  • Shaibu, V. O., & Weli, V. E. (2017). Relationship between PM 2. 5 and climate variability in Niger Delta, Nigeria. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 5(1), 20–24. https://doi.org/10.12691/env-5-1-4
  • Sidibe, A., Sakamoto, Y., Murano, K., Koita, O. A., Traore, I., Dansoko, Y., & Kajii, Y. (2022). Personal exposure to fine particles (PM2.5) in Northwest Africa: Case of the urban city of Bamako in Mali. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), 611. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010611
  • Singh, A., Ng’ang’a, D., Gatari, M. J., Kidane, A. W., Alemu, Z. A., Derrick, N., Webster, M. J., Bartington, S. E., Thomas, G. N., Avis, W., & Pope, F. D. (2021). Air quality assessment in three east African cities using calibrated low-cost sensors with a focus on road-based hotspots. Environmental Research Communications, 3(7), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/ac0e0a
  • Snilstveit, B., Oliver, S., Vojtkova, M., Snilstveit, C. B., & Oliver, S. (2012). Narrative approaches to systematic review and synthesis of evidence for international development policy and practice. Journal of Development Effectiveness, 4(3), 410–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/19439342.2012.710641
  • Sow, B., Tchanche, B., Fall, I., Souaré, S., & Mbow-Diokhané, A. (2021). Monitoring of atmospheric pollutant concentrations in the city of Dakar, Senegal. Open Journal of Air Pollution, 10(1), 18–30. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojap.2021.101002
  • Spencer-Hwag, R., Jayden, H., Ryan, H., Stephanie, S., & Susanne, D. (2023). Adverse health outcomes in early childhood (birth to 5 years) and ambient air pollutant exposures: A systematic review. Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health, 16(1), 913–944. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-023-01308-1
  • Subramanian, R., Kagabo, A. S., Baharane, V., Guhirwa, S., Sindayigaya, C., Malings, C., Williams, N. J., Kalisa, E., Li, H., Adams, P., Robinson, A. L., Dewitt, H. L., Gasore, J., & Jaramillo, P. (2020). Air pollution in Kigali, Rwanda: Spatial and temporal variability, source contributions, and the impact of car-free Sundays. Cleaner Air Journal, 30(2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.17159/caj/2020/30/2.8023
  • Sulaymon, I. D., Zhang, Y., Hopke, P. K., Ye, F., Gong, K., Mao, J., & Hu, J. (2022). Modelling PM2.5 during severe atmospheric pollution episode in Lagos, Nigeria: Spatiotemporal variations, source apportionment, and meteorological influences. Public Health Journal, 128(13), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JD038360
  • Sulemana, R., Boohene, M., & Koblah, S. (2019). Assessment of heavy metal concentrations in particulate matter (PM10) in the ambient air of selected roadsides in the Accra Metropolis of Ghana, West Africa. Journal of Applied Thought, 6(1), 1–17.
  • Talbi, A., Kerchich, Y., & Kerbachi, R. (2017). Assessment of annual air pollution levels with PM1, PM2.5, PM10 and associated heavy metals in Algiers, Algeria. Environmental Pollution, 232, 252–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.09.041
  • Taylor, E. T., & Nakai, S. (2012). The levels of toxic air pollutants in kitchens with traditional stoves in rural Sierra Leone. Journal of Environmental Protection, 3(10), 1353–1363. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2012.310154
  • Terrouche, A., Ali-Khodja, H., Kemmouche, A., Bouziane, M., Derradji, A., & Charron, A. (2015). Identification of sources of atmospheric particulate matter and trace metals in Constantine, Algeria. Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health, 9(1), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-014-0308-1
  • Thabethe, L., Voyi, K., & Wichmann, J. (2021). Association between ambient air pollution and cause-specific mortality in Cape Town, Durban, and Johannesburg, South Africa: Any susceptible groups? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(31), 42868–42876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356/021/13778/w
  • Val, S., Liousse, C., Doumbia, E. T., Galy-Lacaux, C., Cachier, H., Marchand, M., Badel, A., Gardrat, E., Sylvester, A., & Baeza-Squiban, A. (2013). Physico-chemical characterization of African aerosols (Bamako in Mali and Darkar in Senegal) and their toxic effects in human bronchial epithelial cells: Description of a worrying situation. Particle and Fibre Toxicology, 10(10), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/11743/8977/10/10
  • Val, S., Liousse, C., Hadji, E., & Doumbia, T. (2014). Physico-chemical characterization of African urban aerosols (Bamako in Mali and Dakar in Senegal) and their toxic effects in human bronchial epithelial cells: Description of a worrying situation. Particle and Fire Toxicology, 10(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-10-10
  • Were, F. H., Wafula, G. A., Lukorito, C. B., & Kamanu, T. K. K. (2020). Levels of PM10 and PM2.5 and respiratory health impacts on school-going children in Kenya. Journal of Health and Pollution, 10(27), 7–15. https://doi.org/10.5696/2156-9614-10.27.200912
  • Westhuizen, D. V. D., Howlett-Downing, C., Molnár, P., Boman, J., Wichmann, J., & Eschwege, K. G. V. (2022). Atmospheric fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in Bloemfontein, South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2022.2154664
  • Wheida, A., Nasser, A., El, M., Borbon, A., Abo, G. A., Ata, E., Abdel, M., & Alfaro, S. C. (2018). Tackling the mortality from long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution in megacities: Lessons from the Greater Cairo case study. Environmental Research, 160, 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.09.028
  • Woolley, K., Thomas, N., Kirenga, B., Okello, G., & Kabera, T. (2023). Association of household cooking location behaviour with acute respiratory infections among children aged under five years; a cross sectional analysis of 30 sub-Saharan African demographic and health surveys. Atmospheric Environment, 276(119055), 600–618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2022.119055
  • Word Bank. (2011). Wood-based biomass energy development for sub-Saharan Africa. Word Bank Publication. https://doi.org/10.1596/26149
  • World Health Organisation. (2014) . World health statistics. WHO Publisher.
  • World Health Organisation. (2016) . Ambient air pollution:A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease. WHO Publishers.
  • World Health Organization. (2021) . WHO global air quality guidelines. WHO Publishers.
  • Yakubu, O. H. (2018). Particle (soot) pollution in port harcourt rivers state, Nigeria—double air pollution burden? understanding and tackling potential environmental public health impacts. MDPI: Environments, 5(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments5010002
  • Zhou, Z., Dionisio, K. L., Arku, R. E., Quaye, A., Hughes, A. F., & Vallarino, J. (2011). Household and community poverty, biomass use, and air pollution in Accra, Ghana. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(27), 11028–11033. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1019183108
  • Zhou, Z., Dionisio, K. L., Verissimo, T. G., Kerr, A. S., Coull, B., Howie, S., Arku, R. E., Koutrakis, P., Spengler, J. D., Fornace, K., Hughes, A. F., Vallarino, J., Agyei-Mensah, S., & Ezzati, M. (2014). Chemical characterization and source apportionment of household fine particulate matter in rural, peri-urban, and urban West Africa. Environmental Science and Technology, 48(2), 1343–1351. https://doi.org/10.1021/es404185m
  • Zhu, Y., & Shi, Y. (2023). Spatio-temporal variations of PM2.5 concentrations and related premature deaths in Asia, Africa, and Europe from 2000 to 2018. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 99, 107046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eiar.2023.107046