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Articles and Studies

Pilgrimage, Crusade, Trade and Embassy: Pre-Elizabethan English Contacts with the Ottoman Turks

Gregory O’MalleyEmmanuel College, Cambridge
Pages 153-170 | Published online: 17 Feb 2023

  • M. Epstein, The Early History of the Levant Company (London, 1908); H. G. Rawlinson, “Early Trade between England and the Levant”, Journal of Indian History 2/1 (1922), 107–16; idem, “The Embassy of William Harborne to Constantinople, 1583–88”, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Fourth Series 5 (1922), 5–6; Warner G. Rice, “Early English Travellers to Greece and the Levant”, Essays and Studies in English and Comparative Literature by Members of the English Department of the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, 1933), pp. 205–60; Alfred C. Wood, A History of the Levant Company (Oxford, 1935); Samuel C. Chew, The Crescent and the Rose: Islam and England during the Renaissance (New York, 1937), esp. section 3; A. L. Horniker, “William Harborne and the Beginning of Anglo-Turkish Diplomatic Relations”, Journal of Modern History 14 (1942), 306–15; Franklin L. Baumer, “England, the Turk and the Common Corps of Christendom”, American Historical Review 50 (1944–45), 26–48; idem, “The Conception of Christendom in Renaissance England”, Journal of the History of Ideas 6 (1945), 131–56; T. S. Willan, “Some Aspects of English Trade with the Levant in the Sixteenth Century”, English Historical Review 70 (1955), 399–410; G. D. Ramsay, English Overseas Trade during the Centuries of Emergence (London, 1957), pp. 34–62; Ralph Davis, “England and the Mediterranean, 1570–1670”, in Essays in the Economic and Social History of Tudor and Stuart England, ed. F. J. Fisher (Cambridge, 1961), pp. 117–37; C. A. Patrides, “‘The Bloody and Cruell Turke’: the Background of a Renaissance Commonplace”, Studies in the Renaissance 10 (1963), 126–35; A. C. Wood, A History of the Levant Company (London, 1964); Andrew P. Vella, “A Sixteenth Century Elizabethan Merchant in Malta”, Melita Historica 5/3 (1970), 197–238; idem, An Elizabethan-Ottoman Conspiracy (Malta, 1972); S. A. Skilliter, William Harborne and the Trade with Turkey, 1578–1582: A Documentary Study of the First Anglo-Ottoman Relations (Oxford, 1977); G. V. Scammell, The World Encompassed: The First European Maritime Empires c. 800–1650 (London, 1981), chap. 9; Kenneth R. Andrews, Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480–1630 (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 87–100; Nabil Nabil, Islam in Britain, 1558–1685 (Cambridge, 1998).
  • Vella, Elizabethan-Ottoman Conspiracy, passim.
  • Davis, “England and the Mediterranean”, p. 117; Lawrence Stone, “Elizabethan Overseas Trade”, Economic History Review, n.s., 2 (1949), 30–58, at pp. 40, 43–4; Willan, “Some Aspects”, passim; J. A. Williamson, A Short History of British Expansion, I, The Old Colonial Empire, 3rd ed. (London, 1965), p. 49; Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans. Siân Reynolds, 2 vols. (London, 1972), 1:614–15; Vella, “Elizabethan Merchant”, pp. 198–99; idem, Elizabethan-Ottoman Conspiracy, p. 16; Scammell, World Encompassed, p. 463; Andrews, Trade, Plunder and Settlement, pp. 87–88.
  • Chew, Crescent and the Rose, p. 104; Stone, “Elizabethan Overseas Trade”, pp. 30, 32–33, 43–44; Vella, Elizabethan-Ottoman Conspiracy, passim; Scammell, World Encompassed, p. 494; Matar, Islam in Britain, p. 121; Rice, “Early English Travellers”, pp. 206–14; Wood, Levant Company, p. 5.
  • Hence, for example, Dorothée Metlitzki’s contention that what Englishmen knew or imagined about the Saracens remained essentially unchanged between c. 1300 and the Renaissance. Similarly, Samuel Chew’s study of Renaissance drama led him to the conclusion that even then “no clear-cut distinction was made between Turks and Moors or ‘Saracens’, in the popular mind”. Dorothée Metlitzki, The Matter of Araby in Medieval England (London, 1977), p. 120; Chew, Crescent and the Rose, pp. 104, 145. On this point see also Rana Kabbani, Europe’s Myths of Orient: Devise and Rule (Basingstoke, 1986), pp. 15–22. The incurious nature of English pilgrims is remarked upon in Rice, “Early English Travellers”, pp. 206–14, and Chew, Crescent and the Rose, pp. 59–60.
  • Kabbani, Europe’s Myths of Orient, pp. 5–6, 14–22; Daniel J. Vitkus, “Early Modern Orientalism: Representations of Islam in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe” in Western Views of Islam in Medieval and Early Modern Europe, ed. David R. Blanks and Michael Frassetto (Basingstoke, 1999), pp. 207–30.
  • See, for example, the articles by Gloria Allaire and Nancy Bisaha in Western Views of Islam, ed. Blanks and Frassetto, pp. 173–206.
  • A partial exception is Robert Schwoebel, The Shadow of the Crescent: The Renaissance Image of the Turk (1453–1517) (Nieuwkoop, 1967), pp. 11–12, 48, 134–39, 184–86. For contributions with a particular relevance to English anti-Turkish crusading activity see Charles L. Tipton, “The English at Nicopolis”, Speculum 33 (1962), 529–40; Maurice Keen, “Chaucer’s Knight, the English Aristocracy and the Crusade” in English Court Culture in the Later Middle Ages, ed. V. J. Scattergood and J. Sherborne (London, 1983), reprinted in Maurice Keen, Nobles, Knights and Men-at-arms (London, 1996), pp. 101–19; Christopher Tyerman, England and the Crusades, 1095–1588 (Chicago, 1988); A. T. Luttrell, “English Levantine Crusaders: 1363–1367”, Renaissance Studies 2 (1988), 143–53; idem, “Chaucer’s Knight and the Mediterranean”, Library of Mediterranean History 1 (1994), 127–60.
  • William Hale, “Introduction: The Historical Background”, in Four Centuries of Turco-British Relations (Beverley, 1984), ed. William Hale and Ali İhsan Baḡiṣ, p. 1.
  • Matar, Islam in Britain, p. 5.
  • The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1509–1558, ed. S. T. Bindoff, 3 vols. (London, 1982), 3:308–10.
  • Skilliter, Harborne, pp. 5–9.
  • Braudel, Mediterranean, 1:614.
  • Dorothy M. Vaughan, Europe and the Turk: A Pattern of Alliances (Liverpool, 1954), pp. 92–93.
  • Charles Singer, The Earliest Chemical Industry: An Essay in the Historical Relations of Economics and Technology illustrated from the Alum Trade (London, 1948), pp. 158–59. I am grateful to Dr Helen Nicholson for alerting me to this work. See also Alwyn A. Ruddock, Italian Merchants and Shipping in Southampton 1270–1600 (Southampton, 1951), p. 221; D. S. Chambers, “English representation at the court of Rome in the early Tudor period”, unpublished D. Phil thesis, Oxford, 1962, p. 168.
  • R. Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques & Discoveries of the English Nation, 2nd ed., 12 vols. (London, 1598–1600, repr. Glasgow, 1903–5), 5:62–64. Although Skilliter remarks on this, her discussion of the arrangements under which the English might have been allowed to trade in Ottoman ports does not extend to the period before 1535. By implication, however, and by analogy with the voyage of the Bark Aucher in 1551, it seems likely that when necessary, safe-conducts were procured on behalf of English traders by the Genoese or Venetians. Skilliter, Harborne, pp. 5, 9.
  • Braudel, Mediterranean, 1:612–13; Ruddock, Italian Merchants and Shipping, pp. 208–9; M. E. Mallett, “Anglo-Florentine Commercial Relations, 1465–1491”, Economic History Review, 2nd series, 15 (1962), 250–65.
  • In 1443 Henry granted Nicholas “Jone”, a Bolognese merchant domiciled in England and married to an Englishwoman, the office of the brokerage of exchanges and securities of carracks and other vessels coming to England. Jone had earlier brought him three camels and an ostrich from Turkey. Calendar of Patent Rolls, Richard II–Henry VII [hereafter cited as CPR], 23 vols. (London, 1895–1916), 1441–6, p. 166. Schwoebel, Shadow of the Crescent, p. 134, wrongly assumed that “Jone” was an Englishman.
  • E. M. Carus-Wilson, “The Overseas Trade of Bristol”, in Studies in English Trade in the Fifteenth Century, ed. Eileen Power and M. M. Postan (London, 1933), pp. 225–29; C. L. Scofield, The Life and Reign of Edward IV, 2 vols. (London, 1923), 2:404–28; Charles Charles, Edward IV (London, 1974), pp. 362–63, 368–70.
  • Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts, Relating to English Affairs, Existing in the Archives and Collections of Venice and in Other Libraries of Northern Italy [hereafter cited as CSPV], vol. 1, 1202–1509 (London, 1864), no. 414.
  • CSPV, nos. 544, 609; Ruddock, Italian Merchants and Shipping, pp. 221–23. The English presence in Crete before 1500 is also noticed by, among others, Wood, Levant Company, p. 2; Ramsay, English Overseas Trade, p. 36; Braudel, Mediterranean, 1:613; Williamson, Old Colonial Empire, pp. 43–44; Scammell, World Encompassed, p. 460.
  • Another merchant, Zuan Bruzexe, complained of the seizure in London. It has been suggested that his name as given may be a rendering of “John Bridges”, but this remains unproven. CSPV, no. 422.
  • CSPV, nos. 422, 424–25, 429–30, 436, 441.
  • CSPV, nos. 425, 429, 441, 509.
  • Alwyn Ruddock, “London Capitalists and the Decline of Southampton in the Early Tudor Period”, Economic History Review, n.s., 2 (1949), 141; Vaughan, Europe and the Turk, p. 27.
  • Norman Housley, Religious Warfare in Europe, 1400–1536 (Oxford, 2002), pp. 142–43. See also Letters and Papers Foreign and Domestic of the Reign of Henry VIII [hereafter cited as LP Henry VIII], 22 vols. in 37 parts (London, 1864–1929), no. 4009.
  • Sydney Anglo, Spectacle, Pageantry and Early Tudor Policy, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1997), pp. 134–35.
  • G. de Lannoy, Œuvres, ed. C. Potvin (Louvain, 1878); B. de la Broquière, Le Voyage d’Outremer de Bertrandon de la Broquière, ed. C. Schefer (Paris, 1892); P. Tafur, Pero Tafur. Travels and Adventures, ed. and trans. Malcolm Letts (London, 1926). An English translation of Lannoy’s account of his travels can be found in G. de Lannoy, “A survey of Egypt and Syria, undertaken in the year 1422, by Sir Gilbert de Lannoy, Knight”, trans. J. Webb, Archaeologia 20 (1821), 281–444, and translations of Broquière’s in Early Travels in Palestine, ed. T. Wright (London, 1848), pp. 283–382 and E. Hoade, Western Pilgrims to the Holy Land (Jerusalem, 1952).
  • Rice, “English Travellers”, p. 206; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, p. 310.
  • W. Wey, Itineraries (Roxburghe Club, 1857), p. 78. Wey also noted the Hospitallers’ celebrations on hearing of the slaughter of large numbers of Turks by Vlad the Impaler in the same year. Ibid, p.101.
  • The Pylgrymage of Sir Richard Guylforde to the Holy Land, ed. H. Ellis, Camden Society, Original Series 51 (London, 1851), pp. 68, 11, 61.
  • Ibid., pp. 12–13.
  • Ye Oldest Diarie of Englysshe Travell, ed. W. J. Loftie (London, 1884), p. 19. Some examples of Torkington’s plagiarism from Guildford’s account, which had been printed in 1511, are listed in Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 310–11.
  • Ye Oldest Diarie, ed. Loftie, pp. 21–22, 23, 25, 55. While apparently as callous and extortionate as their Mamluk predecessors, the Ottoman sultan’s officials at least dealt with the pilgrims of 1517 without excessive delay. Cf. Pylgrymage of Sir Richard Guylforde, ed. Ellis, pp. 15–16, 56; Ye Oldest Diarie, ed. Loftie, pp. 23, 55.
  • Ye Oldest Diarie, ed. Loftie, p. 22.
  • Calendar of Entries in the Papal Registers relating to Great Britain and Ireland. Papal Letters 1198–1513 [hereafter cited as CPL], 19 vols. in 20 (London and Dublin, 1893–1998), 9:519; Foedera, conventiones, litterae, et cujuscunque generis, acta publica inter reges angliae, et alios quosvis imperatores, reges, pontifices, principes, vel communitates, ab ineunte saeculo duodecimo, viz. ab anno 1101 ad nostra usque tempora, ed. Thomas Rymer, 3rd ed., 10 vols. (London, 1739–45; repr. Farnborough, 1967), 5/2:40–41; CPR 1447–52, p. 562. His career is discussed in W. R. B. Robinson, “Sir Hugh Johnys: a Fifteenth-Century Welsh Knight”, Morgannwg 14 (1970), 5–34.
  • Dr Luttrell has questioned whether Fitzhugh actually travelled to the eastern Mediterranean as well as sending armaments to Bodrum. Anthony T. Luttrell, “English Contributions to the Hospitaller Castle at Bodrum in Turkey, 1407–1437”, MO, 2, pp. 166–67. But cf. J. Hughes, Pastors and Visionaries: Religion and Secular Life in Late Medieval Yorkshire (Woodbridge, 1988), p. 22
  • Zacharias N. Tsirpanlis, Anekdota eggrapha gia te Rodo kai te Noties Sporades apo to archeio ton Ionniton Ippoton (unpublished documents concerning Rhodes and the south-eastern Aegean Islands from the Archives of the Order of St John) [in Greek] (Rhodes, 1995), no. 259; Valletta, National Library of Malta, Archives of the Knights [hereafter cited as NLM], Cod. 79, fol. 11v; 366, fol. 119v; 367, fols. 118v, 201v; 382, fol. 138r–v; 387, fol. 202r. I have used the modern foliation.
  • NLM, Cod. 364, fol. 175r; 366, fol. 174v.
  • NLM, Cod. 367, fol. 215v.
  • NLM, Cod. 367, fol. 201v.
  • Schwoebel, Shadow of the Crescent, p. 136; Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 302–23; Steven Steven, The Fall of Constantinople 1453 (Cambridge, 1965), p. 84.
  • CPR 1485–94, p. 188.
  • NLM, Cod. 382, fol. 138r–v.
  • These and other early examples in Luttrell, “Chaucer’s Knight”, pp. 140–41, 143.
  • Anthony T. Luttrell, “Latin Responses to Ottoman Expansion before 1389”, The Ottoman Emirate (1300–1389), ed. Elizabeth Zachariadou (Rethymnon, 1993), p. 126.
  • On the issue of English participation see Charles L. Tipton, “The English at Nicopolis”, passim; J. J. N. Palmer, England, France and Christendom, 1377–99 (London, 1972); Luttrell, “Chaucer’s Knight and the Mediterranean”, p. 143 n. 61.
  • Tyerman, England and the Crusades, pp. 263–65; S. Düll, Anthony T. Luttrell and Maurice Keen, “Faithful unto Death: the Tomb Slab of Sir William Neville and Sir John Clanvow, Constantinople 1391”, Antiquaries Journal 71 (1993), 174–90.
  • Expeditions to Prussia and the Holy Land made by Henry Earl of Derby, ed. Lucy Toulmin Smith, Camden Society, n.s. 52 (London, 1894).
  • This was embodied most clearly in J. Capgrave, Liber de illustribus Henricis, ed. F. Hingeston, RS 7 (London, 1858).
  • Lannoy, “Survey”, trans. Webb, p. 284. This was presumably in 1388, when Boucicaut spent several months at the court of Murad I under a safe conduct obtained in Constantinople: Le Livre des Fais du bon Messire Jehan le Maingre, dit Bouciquaut, ed. Denis Lalande (Geneva, 1985), pp. 61–62.
  • H. Ellis, Original Letters Illustrative of English History, 2nd Series, vol. 1 (repr. London, 1969), pp. 54–58.
  • Lannoy, Œuvres; idem, “Survey”, passim; J. H. Wylie, History of England under Henry the Fourth, 4 vols. (London, 1884–98), 1:316.
  • Broquière, Voyage d’Outremer, passim.
  • Leading English visitors to Rhodes, Cyprus and Jerusalem during the reign of Richard II are noticed in Luttrell, “Chaucer’s Knight and the Mediterranean”, pp. 131–32, 145, 151.
  • Pageant of the Birth, Life and Death of Richard Beauchamp Earl of Warwick 1389–1439, ed. H. A. Dillon (London, 1914); CSPV, p. 46; Calendar of Close Rolls, Richard II–Henry VII [hereafter cited as CCR], 24 vols. (London, 1914–63), 1405–9, p. 318; Foedera, 4/2:56; 5/1:14, 35, 167, 186; Calendar of Papal Letters, 7:6, 439–40; 11:580; Wey, Itineraries, p. 77. Willoughby and de la Warre did not reach the Holy Land in 1440, being captured and held to ransom in Germany during their journey. Willoughby redeemed his vow, but de la Warre set off again in 1446/7. T. Bekyngton, Official Correspondence, ed. G. Williams, 2 vols., RS 56 (London, 1872), 1:93; CPL, 9:84; Foedera, 5/1:175.
  • For the arms and the circumstances in which they were placed on the tower see Luttrell, “English Contributions”, pp. 168–72.
  • London, British Library, MS Cotton Appendix VIII, fols. 108v–12v. This work follows a copy of Lydgate’s Life of Our Lady addressed to a fellow monk at Bury, Edmund Fansi (ibid, fols. 2–108r), but is in a different hand. A competent transcription, but without commentary, can be found in “Rathschläge für eine Orientreise”, ed. C. Horstmann, Englische Studien 8 (1893), 277–84.
  • The document makes reference to an independent Constantinople and to the Hospitaller castle of Bodrum, the construction of which began in 1407 or 1408. It is possible that it also refers to Murad II, Ottoman sultan between 1422 and 1451. See below, n. 65. Lydgate’s Life was written at the behest of Henry V of England, probably in 1421–22, and the Cotton Appendix MS includes a note that Lydgate was a sexagenarius in 1440. A Critical Edition of John Lydgate’s Life of Our Lady, ed. Joseph A. Lauritis, Ralph A. Klinefelter and Vernon F. Gallagher (Louvain, 1961), pp. 4–8, 44; BL Cotton Appendix VIII, fol. 1r.
  • BL Cotton Appendix VIII, fols. 111r–12r; “Rathschläge”, 282–83.
  • BL Cotton Appendix VIII, fol. 112r, 112v; “Rathschläge”, 283, 284.
  • BL Cotton Appendix VIII, fols. 108v, 110r; “Rathschläge”, 277–78, 280.
  • BL Cotton Appendix VIII, fol. 109v; “Rathschläge”, 279.
  • BL Cotton Appendix VIII, fol. 111r–v; “Rathschläge”, 282.
  • For this reading of Froissart’s references to l’Amorath/Amorath see Luttrell, “Latin Responses”, p. 133. However, the Hospitaller chancery called the Ottoman ruler, Murad II, “Amaratum Bey” in 1439. Here, Amaratum appears to designate ‘Murad’. NLM, Cod. 353, fol. 195r.
  • “Rathschläge”, 282–83.
  • NLM, Cod. 389, fol. 162r; 402, fol. 175r–v; 404, fol. 234v.
  • Jürgen Sarnowsky, Macht und Herrschaft im Johanniterorden des 15. Jahrhunderts: Verfassung und Verwaitung der Johanniter auf Rhodos (1421–1522) (Münster, 2001), pp. 287–88.
  • For diplomatic contacts after 1480 see Nicolas Vatin, L’Ordre de Saint-Jean-de-Jérusalem, l’Empire ottoman et la Méditerranée orientale entre les deux sièges de Rhodes (1480–1522) (Paris, 1994), passim. I have not consulted Z. N. Tsirpanlis, “Friendly Relations of the Knights of Rhodes with the Turks in the Fifteenth Century” [in Greek], Byzantinische Forschungen 3 (1968), 191–209.
  • E.g. Z. N. Tsirpanlis, Rhodes and the South-East Aegean Islands under the Knights of St John (14th–16th cc): Collected Studies [in Greek] (Rhodes, 1991), pp. 46–63. Nicolas Vatin has noted that as a result of their naval depradations, Turkish hostility to both the Hospitallers and the inhabitants of Rhodes increased to such a degree in the early sixteenth century that the order was sometimes represented in the empire by Jews unaccompanied by Christians. Vatin, L’Ordre, pp. 288–89, 332.
  • For Holt’s career in the East see Charles L. Tipton, “Peter Holt, Turcopolier of Rhodes and Prior of Ireland”, Annales de l’Ordre souverain de Malte 22 (1964), 82–85; Monumenta Peloponnesiaca: Documents for the History of the Peloponnese in the 14th and 15th centuries, ed. J. Chrysostomides (Camberley, 1995), nos. 274–79, 283, 289.
  • NLM, Cod. 80, fols. 81v–83r; Vatin, L’Ordre, p. 281.
  • NLM, Cod. 76, fols. 109v, 125r–26r.
  • NLM, Cod. 389, fols. 209v–10r.
  • F. Madden, “Documents Relating to Perkin Warbeck”, Archaelogia 27 (1838), 153–210, at p. 173. Kendal’s supposed plots against the king are discussed in Ian Arthurson, The Perkin Warbeck Conspiracy (Stroud, 1994), pp. 60, 76–77, 90–91, 98, 100, 103, 110–11, 135–37.
  • Contemporary estimates, including Roberts’, of the size of the Ottoman army are summarized in Kenneth M. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), 4 vols. (Philadelphia, 1976–84), 3:205 and n. 24. From 1453 or earlier, the total forces available to the Ottomans were often given as 200,000 in western sources. Schwoebel, Shadow of the Crescent, pp. 4, 6, 74, 195.
  • London, British Library, MS Cotton Otho C. ix, fols. 39r–41r, at fol. 40r–v. A transcription of those portions of the letter relating to the siege of Rhodes, including Roberts’ interview with Suleiman, is provided in Whitworth Porter, The Knights of Malta, 2nd ed. (London, 1883), pp. 711–13, at p. 712, who copied it from Taaffe. Taaffe supplied several words which are probably his interpolations rather than readings from the manuscript, the margins of which were damaged by fire in 1731. I have put these in italics. In addition I have placed some suggested interpolations of my own in square brackets.
  • Pir Mehmed Pasha, the grand vizier.
  • Mustafa Pasha, the second vizier.
  • ?Ahmed Pasha, the third vizier and beylerbey of Rumelia.
  • Qasim Pasha, beylerbey of Anatolia.
  • LP Henry VIII, 5, no. 1626; 7, nos. 326, 1100, 1345–46; 8, no. 1155; 9, nos. 910, 920; 12/1, nos. 347, 1144, 1190; 12/2, nos. 129, 132, 355, 524, 792–93, 1258; 13/1, nos. 230, 1358, 1397–98; 13/2, nos. 87, 103, 162, 965–66; 14/2, nos. 404–5.
  • LP Henry VIII, 5, no. 1069.
  • Tsirpanlis, Anecdota, doc. 321 (pp. 739–40): NLM, Cod. 364, fol. 117v [116v].
  • Tsirpanlis, Anecdota, docs. 308–9A (pp. 707–15); CPL, 10:261–65; Foedera, 5/2:53, 57. R. Valentini, “L’Egeo dopo la caduta di Costantinopoli nelle relazioni dei Gran Maestri di Rodi”, Bullettino dell’Istituto Storico Italiano per il Medio Evo e Archivio Muratoriano 51 (1936), 137–68, at pp. 139–42, 160–62.
  • The Visitations of Yorkshire in the Years 1563 and 1564, made by William Flowers, Esquire, Norroy King of Arms, ed. Charles Best Norcliffe, Harleian Society Publications 16 (London, 1881), p. 94; NLM, Cod. 354, fol. 200r; Bekynton, Official Correspondence, ed. Williams, 1:87.
  • NLM, Cod. 361, fols. 237v–38r, 295r; Cod. 363, fols. 241v–42r, 242v–43r, 260r; Cod. 364, fol. 129r–v; Cod. 366, fol. 142r. Tsirpanlis, Anecdota, docs. 273–74, 277; Sarnowsky, Macht und Herrschaft, pp. 656, 673.
  • Franz Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, trans. Ralph Manheim and ed. William C. Hickman (Princeton, 1978), pp. 129–30.
  • Text in Valentini, “L’Egeo”, pp. 161–62. Valentini was unaware of Dawney’s appointment as orator.

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