References
- Gill , Stephen , ed. 1993 . Gramsci, Historical Materialism and International Relations , Cambridge University Press . A good introduction to the 'neo-Gramscian school' of IR is provided by
- Pijl , Kees van der . 1998 . Transnational Classes and International Relations , Routledge .
- Cox , Robert and Sinclair , Timothy . 1996 . Approaches to World Order , Cambridge University Press .
- Sandholtz , Wayne and Stone , Alec Sweet , eds. 1998 . European Integration and Supranational Governance , Oxford University Press . The intergovernmentalist perspective has been most developed by Andrew Moravcsik. See his The Choice for Europe (Cornell University Press, 1998). A recent collection of essays by authors working from a supranationalist perspective—which draws at least in part on earlier neofunctionalist theories—can be found in
- Ruggie , John . 1982 . 'International Regimes, Transactions and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order' . International Organization , 36 ( 2 ) : 382 Borrowing the words of
- Sklair , Leslie . 1997 . 'Social Movements for Global Capitalism: The Transnational Capitalist Class in Action' . Review of International Political Economy , 4 ( 3 ) : 520
- Gill , Stephen . 1990 . American Hegemony and the Trilateral Commission , Cambridge University Press . Here I draw upon the work of Van der Pijl (Transnational Classes, esp. ch. 4), as well as that of
- Streeck , Wolfgang and Schmitter , Philippe . 1991 . 'From National Corporatism to Transnational Pluralism' . Politics and Society , 19 ( 2 ) : 133 – 64 .
- Gill , Stephen . 1998 . 'European Governance and New Constitutionalism: Economic and Monetary Union and Alternatives to Disciplinary Neoliberalism in Europe' . New Political Economy , 3 ( I ) : 5
- Dekker , Wisse . 1990 . 'Industrialists Drive for a Stronger Europe: Interview with Professor Dr Wisse Dekker' . Europe 2000 , 2 ( 2 ) : 18
- ERT, European Industry and the Developing World . 1994 . A Dialogue between Partners , 1 European Round Table of Industrialists . Monod, quoted in
- These are the words of co-founder Wisse Dekker, quoted in 'Industrialists Drive for a Stronger Europe', p. 17.
- Greenwood , Justin . 1997 . Representing Interests in the European Union , 3 Macmillan . Streeck & Schmitter, 'From National Corporatism to Transnational Pluralism'. The number of 'interest groups' seeking to influence European policy making has grown dramatically since Europe's relance in the mid 1980s and is now estimated by the Commission to total about 3,000, including over 500 European and international federations. See
- Mazey , Sonia and Richardson , Jeremy , eds. 1993 . Lobbying in the European Community , Oxford University Press . In the growing literature on organised interests in the EU part of the debate has come to revolve around the question of whether these emerging supranational patterns of interest representation are either (neo)corporatist or pluralist. See, for example,
- Greenwood , Justin , eds. 1992 . Organized Interests and the European Community , Sage . I maintain that the ERT fits neither 'model' well.
- Richardson , Keith . December 1989 . “ 'Europe's Industrialists Help Shape the Single Market' ” . December , Washington D.C. : Europe, EC Commission Office . . Direct contacts between ERT members and political leaders have, according to one ERT official, been especially developed under the chairmanship of Jerome Monod (from 1992 to 1996), who, with his own political past and continuing strong links to French politics and politicians, further fostered this mode of communication. It was 'under Monod that the idea of going to see Juppe, Kohl, and so on ]became normal practice]. That was very much Monod's habit, to pick up the phone [and say] OK, we go and see somebody, we go and see Balladur to get the Uruguay Round tied up'. Interview, Brussels, 24 May 1996.
- Moravcsik , Andrew . 1991 . 'Negotiating the Single European Act: National Interests and Conventional State Craft in the European Community' . International Organization , 45 : 19 – 56 . and Sandholtz & Zysman, '1992'.
- Hooghe , Liesbet and Marks , Gary . 1999 . “ 'The making of a polity: the struggle over European integration' ” . In Continuity and Change in Contemporary Capitalism , Edited by: Kitchelt , Herbert . 70 – 97 . Cambridge University Press . A somewhat similar approach has been recently advocated by . Hooghe & Marks, however, do not propose a theoretical framework to understand which actors play what role in the struggle over European integration and what might account for the outcome of that struggle.
- Pearce , Joan and Sutton , John . 1986 . Protection and Industrial Policy in Europe , Routledge & Kegan Paul . See, for an account of this strategy,
- Ross , George . 1995 . Jacques Delors and European Integration , Polity Press .
- For a more elaborate analysis of this early ERT strategy and how it was bound up with the structural composition of its membership, see Van Apeldoorn, Transnational Capitalism, ch. 5.
- ERT, Foundations for the Future of European Industry . 1983 . Memorandum to EC Commissioner Davignon , 10 June
- ERT . 1985 . Changing Scales , 3 15 Roundtable of European Industrialists .
- Krause , Alex . 1991 . Inside the New Europe , Harper-Collins . See Cowles, The Politics of Big Business, ch. 4. See also
- Hanson , Brian T. 1998 . 'What Happened to Fortress Europe?: External Trade Policy Liberalisation in the European Union' . International Organization , 52 ( 1 ) : 55 – 85 .
- Sandholtz , Wayne . 1993 . 'Choosing Union: Monetary Politics and Maastricht' . International Organization , 47 ( 1 ) : 1 – 39 . See, for a detailed analysis of these and other factors,
- Rhodes , Martin . 1991 . 'The Social Dimension of the Single European Market: National versus Transnational Regulation' . European Journal of Political Research , 19 ( 2 ) : 260 ) Apart from communicating its neoliberal views through its reports and through other channels, at several critical moments the ERT also intervened directly to halt the construction of 'Social Europe'. For instance, as chairman of the ERT, Wisse Dekker sent a letter to Commission President Delors and all 12 EC ambassadors rejecting the proposed European Company Directive, arguing that industrial relations should remain at the national level. See
- ERT . 1993 . European Labour Markets: An Update on Perspectives and Requirements for Job Generation in the Second Half of the 1990s , 8 ii European Round Table of Industrialists .
- Ibid., p. 16.
- Ibid., p. 9. Emphasis in the original.
- Ibid., p. ii.
- Commission , European . 1994 . Growth, Competitiveness, Employment: The Challenges and Ways Forward into the 21st Century , Office for Official Publications of the European Communities .
- European Commission . Growth, Competitiveness, Employment 61
- Jacquemin , Alexis and Pench , Lucio R. , eds. 1997 . Europe Competing in the Global Economy: Reports of the Competitiveness Advisory Group , Edward Elgar . See its first four reports, as collected in
- ERT . 1996 . Benchmarking for Policy-Makers: The Way to Competitiveness, Growth and Job Creation , 15 European Round Table of Industrialists .
- Ibid., p. 13.
- Ibid., p. 18.
- Ibid., p. 17.
- Director-General for Industry . 1997 . Stefano Micossi, in the 'Preface' of European Commission, The Competitiveness of European Industry , 5 Office for Official Publications of the European Communities .
- >European Commission, Benchmarking: Implementation of an Instrument Available to Economic Actors and Public Authorities, Com (97) 153/2, 16 April 1997, p. 3.
- High Level Group on Benchmarking . 1999 . “ 'First Report by the High Level Group on Benchmarking' ” . Benchmarking Papers, No. 2 ), European Commission, Directorate-General III, p. 13.
- Polanyi , Karl . 1957 . The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time , Beacon Press .
- >Ibid., p. 132.