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Politikon
South African Journal of Political Studies
Volume 27, 2000 - Issue 2
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Original Articles

Bringing nonviolence back into the study of contentious politics

Henrik Sommer
Pages 255-275 | Published online: 18 Aug 2010

  • Klandermans , B. 1986 . 'New Social Movements and Resource Mobilization: The European and the American Approach' . International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters , 4 : 13 – 39 .
  • Klandermans , B. and Tarrow , S. 1988 . “ Mobilization into Social Movements: Synthesizing European and American Approaches ” . In From Structure to Action: Comparing Social Movement Research Across Cultures , Edited by: Klandermans , B. , Kriesi , H. and Tarrow , S. Greenwich, CN : JAI Press .
  • McAdam , D. , Tarrow , S. and Tilly , C. 1996 . To Map Contentious Politics . Mobilization , 1 : 17 – 34 .
  • McAdam , D. , Tarrow , S. and Tilly , C. 1997 . “ Towards an Integrated Perspective on Social Movements and Revolution' ” . In Comparative Politics: Rationality, Culture and Institutions , Edited by: Lichbach , M. I. and Zuckerman , A. S. New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Tarrow , S. 1994 . Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Politics , New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Tarrow , S. 1998 . Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, , 2nd (edn) , New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • McAdam , D. , McCarthy , J. D. and ZaId , M. N. , eds. 1996 . Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures and Cultural Framing , New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Kriesi , H. , Koopmans , R. , Duyvendak , J. R. and Giugni , M. G. 1995 . The Politics of New Social Movements in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis , Minneapolis and St Paul : University of Minnesota Press .
  • Goldstone , J. A. 1998 . “ Social Movements or Revolution? On the Evolution and Outcomes of Collective Action ” . In From Contention to Democracy , Edited by: Giugni , M. G. , McAdam , D. and Tilly , C. Boulder, CO : Rowman and Littlefield .
  • McAdam , D. , Tarrow , S. and Tilly , C. 1999 . “ 'Dynamics of Contention' ” . unpublished manuscript
  • Ibid., p. 13.
  • Tilly , C. 1993 . European Revolutions, 1492-1992 , Cambridge : Blackwell . McAdam, Tarrow and Tilly (1996, 1997, 1999), op. cit.
  • Wehr , P. 1995 . 'Commentary: Towards a History of Nonviolence' . Peace & Change , 20 : 82 – 93 . Tarrow (1994, 1998), op. cit. Previous brief and partial comparisons of the social movement literature with TAN can be found in
  • McCarthy , R. M. and Kruegler , C. 1993 . Toward Research and Theory Building in the Study of Nonviolent Action , Cambridge, MA : Albert Einstein Institution .
  • McCarthy , R. M. and Sharp , G. 1997 . Nonviolent Action: A Research Guide , New York and London : Garland .
  • Sharp , G. 1973 . The Politics of Nonviolent Action , Boston, MA : Porter Sargent .
  • Sharp , G. 1990 . Civilian Based Defense: A Post-Military Weapons System , Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press .
  • McAdam , D. 1982 . Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency 1930-1970 , Chicago, IL : University of Chicago Press .
  • Kreisi , H. 1988 . "The Interdependence of Structure and Action: Some Reflections on the State of the Art' . International Social Movement Research , 1 : 349 – 68 .
  • Tilly , C. 1997 . 'Kings in Beggar's Railmenf . Mobilization , 2 : 107 – 111 . McCarthy and Kruegler (1993), op. cit.;
  • Tilly , C. 1997 . 'Contentious Politics and Social Change' . African Studies , 56 : 51 – 65 .
  • Meyer , D. S. 1999 . Tending the Vineyard: Cultivating Political Process Research' . Sociological Forum , 14 : 79 – 92 .
  • Meyer , D. S. and Minkoff , D. C. 'Operationalizing Political Opportunity' . paper presented at the 1997 Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association . Toronto, Canada. Tilly (1997), op. cit.
  • Sommer , H. 1996 . 'From Apartheid to Democracy: Patterns of Violent and Nonviolent Direct Action in South Africa, 1984-1994' . Africa Today , 43 : 53 – 76 .
  • Sommer , H. 1998 . “ 'Non-Violent Direct Action, the Cycle of Protest, and the Demise of Apartheid, 1970-1994' ” . Boulder : Department of Political Science, University of Colorado . unpublished Ph.D. dissertation
  • McAdam , D. 1995 . "Initiator" and "Spin-Off' Movements: Diffusion Processes in Protest Cycles ” . In Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action , Edited by: Traugott , M. Durham, NC : Duke University Press . Tarrow (1998), op. cit.; McAdam, Tilly and Tarrow (1996, 1997), op. cit.
  • Tilly , C. 1983 . 'Contentious Repertoires in Great Britain, 1758-1834' . Social Science History , 17 : 253 – 279 . Tilly (1993), op. cit.; McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly (1996, 1997), op. cit.
  • Ibid., p. 1.
  • Ibid., p. 85.
  • Tarrow , S. 1996 . 'Social Movements in Contentious Politics: A Review Article' . American Political Science Review , 90 : 874 879
  • Snow , D. A. and Benford , R. D. 1992 . “ Master Frames and Cycles of Protest ” . In Frontiers in Social Movement Theory , Edited by: Morris , A. and Mueller , C. M. New Haven, NJ : Yale University Press .
  • Giugni , M. G. , McAdam , D. and Tilly , C. , eds. 1999 . How Social Movements Matter , Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press . Giugni, McAdam and Tilly (1998), op. cit.;
  • Smith , J. , Chatfield , C. and Pagnucco , R. , eds. 1997 . Transnational Social Movements and Global Politics: Solidarity Beyond the State , Syracuse : Syracuse University Press .
  • Delia Porta , D. , Kreisi , H. and Rucht , D. , eds. 1999 . Social Movements in a Globalizing World , New York : St Martin's Press .
  • Meyer , D. S. and Tarrow , S. , eds. 1998 . The Social Movement Society: Contentious Politics for a New Century , Lanham, MD : Rowman and Littlefeld .
  • Delia Porta , D. 1995 . Social Movements, Political Violence and the State , New York and Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Delia Porta , D. and Reiter , H. 1998 . Policing Protest. The Control of Mass Demonstrations in Western Democracies , Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press .
  • Sharp , G. 1961 . "The Need for Functional Substitute for War' . International Relations , 3 : 176 – 190 . For earlier programmatic statements and details on the pacifist approach see
  • Sharp , G. 1967 . “ A Study of the Meanings of Nonviolence ” . In Gandhi: His Relevance for Our Times , Edited by: Ramachandran , G. and Mahadevan , T. K. Berkeley, CA : World Without War Council .
  • Sharp , G. 1970 . Exploring Nonviolent Alternatives , 42 – 44 . Boston, MA : Porter Sargent . chapter 4
  • Sharp , G. , ed. 1980 . Social Power and Political Freedom , 15 Boston, MA : Porter Sargent .
  • de La Boetie , E. 1942 . [1842] Anti-Dictator: The 'Discours sur la servitude volontaire' , New York : Columbia University Press .
  • Gregg , R. B. 1934 . The Power of Nonviolence , Philadelphia, PA : J. B. Lippincott Company . The concept originates in
  • Burgess , G. and Burgess , H. 1994 . “ Research Questions and Hypotheses ” . In Justice Without Violence , Edited by: Wehr , P. , Burgess , H. and Burgess , G. Boulder, CO : Lynne Reinner . See for example Ackerman and Kruegler (1994), op. cit.;
  • Tarrow , S. 1989 . Democracy and Disorder: Protest and Politics in Italy 1965-1975 , Oxford : Clarendon Press . McAdam (1982), op. cit.
  • Parkman , P. 1988 . Nonviolent Insurrection in El Salvador: The Fall of Maximiliane Hemandez Martinez , Tucson : University of Arizona .
  • Rucht , D. , Koopmans , R. and Niehart , R. , eds. 1998 . Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest , Berlin : Sigma Press .
  • Bond , D. 1985 . “ 'Alternatives to Violence: An Empirical Study of Nonviolent Direct Action' ” . University of Hawaii . unpublished Ph.D. dissertation
  • Bond , D. and Bennett , B. 'The Practice of Democracy: Global Patterns and Processes since 1990' . paper presented at the XIV World Congress of the International Political Science Association . Berlin.
  • Bond , D. , Jenkins , C. J. , Taylor , C. and Schonk , K. 1997 . 'Mapping Mass Political Conflict and Civil Society: Issues and Prospects for the Automated Development of Event Data' . Journal of Conflict Resolution , 41 : 553 – 79 .
  • McGuinness , K. 1993 . 'Gene Sharp's Theory of Power: A Feminist Critique of Consent' . Journal of Peace Research , 30 : 101 – 15 . A similar point is made in
  • Lipsky , M. 1968 . 'Protest as a Political Resource' . American Political Science Review , 62 : 1144 – 58 .
  • Ibid.
  • Tilly , C. 1983 . 'Speaking Your Mind about Elections, Surveys, or Social Movements' . Public Opinion Quarterly , 42 : 461 – 78 .
  • Vogele , W. B. 1992 . 'Learning and Nonviolent Struggle in the Intifadah' . Peace & Change , 17 : 312 – 40 . Burgess and Burgess (1995), op. cit.;
  • Sommer , H. and Scarritt , J. R. 1999 . "The Utility of Reuters for Events Analysis in Area Studies: The Case of Zambia-Zimbabwe Interactions, 1982-1993,' . International Interactions , 25 : 29 – 59 . See Rucht, Koopsmans, and Neidhart (1997), op. cit.;
  • Kellgren , H. and Johanson , J. 1999 . “ 'Mapping Nonviolent Means' ” . In Peace and Development Research Institute , Gothenburg University . Bond, Jenkins, Schock and Taylor (1997), op. cit.; unpublished manuscript
  • Olivier , J. L. and Olivier , J. L. 1990 . 'Causes of Ethnic Collective Action in the Pretoria-Witwatersrand Triangle, 1970 to 1984' . South African Sociological Review , 19 : 89 – 108 . Interesting comparisons could be made between the data sets on South African contention by and the more extensive data set analyzed in Sommer (1996, 1998), op. cit.
  • Gamson , W. A. 1975 . The Strategy of Social Protest , Homewood, IL : Dorsey Press .
  • Kitchelt , H. P. 1986 . 'Political Opportunity Structure and Political Protest: Anti-Nuclear Movements in Four Democracies' . British Journal of Political Science , 16 : 57 – 85 .
  • Eisinger , P. K. 1973 . "The Conditions of Protest Behavior in American Cities' . American Political Science Review , 55 : 11 – 28 .
  • McCarthy , R. M. 1990 . “ Appendix B: The Techniques of Nonviolent Action. Some Principles of its Nature, Use, and Effects ” . In Arab Nonviolent Political Struggle in the Middle East , Edited by: Crow , R. , Grant , P. and Ibrahim , S. E. Boulder, CO : Lynne Reinner .
  • Tilly , C. 1978 . From Mobilization to Revolution , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice-Hall .
  • McAdam , D. 1994 . “ Culture and Social Movements ” . In Ideology and Identity in Contemporary Social Movements , Edited by: Gusfield , J. R. , Johnston , H. and Larana , E. Philadelphia, PA : Temple University Press .
  • McAdam , D. , McCarthy , J. D. and ZaId , M. 1988 . “ Social Movements ” . In Handbook of Sociology , Edited by: Smelser , N. J. Beverly Hills, CA : Sage .
  • McAdara , D. 1998 . “ On the International Origins of Domestic Political Opportunities' ” . In Social Movements and the American Political System , Edited by: Costain , A. H. and McFarlain , A. S. Boulder, CO : Rowman and Littlefield . Smith, Chatfield, and Pagnucco (1997), op. cit,; Tarrow (1998), op. cit.

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