Hard-to-cook phenomenon in bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) processing: Options to improve its role in providing food security

References

• Oniang’o, R.K.; Allotey, J.; Malaba, S.J. Contribution of indigenous knowledge and practices in food technology to the attainment of food security in Africa. J. Food Sci. 2004, 69, 87–91.
   Google Scholar
• Plahar, W.A.; Annan, N.T.; Larweh, P.M.; Golob, P.; Swetman, T.; Greenhaulgh, P.; Coote, C.; Hodges, R. Marketing and processing of bambara groundnuts (W. Africa). Crop Post Harvest Programme. Food Research Institute (FRI): Accra, Ghana, 2002.
   Google Scholar
• Makanda, I.; Tongoona, P.; Madamba, R.; Icishahayo, D.; Derera, J. Evaluation of bambara groundnut varieties for off-season production in Zimbabwe. Afr. Crop Sci. J. 2008, 16(3), 175–183.
   Google Scholar
• Odeny, D.A. The potential of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) in Africa. Natural Resources Forum. 2007, 31, 297–305.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hillocks, R.J.; Bennett, C.; Mponda, O.M. Bambara nut: A review of utilisation, market potential and crop improvement. Afr. Crop Sci. J. 2011, 20(1), 1–16.
   Google Scholar
• Mabika, V.; Mafongoya, P. Bambara groundnut Vigna subterrenean. In Proceedings of the workshop on Conservation and Improvement of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.) Harare, Zimbabwe, 14–16 November 1995.
   Google Scholar
• de-Kock, C. Bambara Groundnut. In Speciality foods of Africa Pvt Ltd, Harare, Zimbabwe. undated: Zimbabwe.
   Google Scholar
• Massawe, F.J.; Roberts, J.A.; Azam-Ali, S.N.; Davey, M.R. Genetic diversity in bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc) landraces assessed by Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 2003, 50, 737–741.
   Google Scholar
• Bamshaiye, O.M.; Adegbola, J.A.; Bamishaiye, E.I. Bambara groundnut: An under-utilized nut in Africa. Advances in Agricultural Biotechnology 2011, 1, 60–72.
   Google Scholar
• Afoakwa, E.O.; Budu, A.S.; Merson, A.B. Response surface methodology for studying the effect of processing conditions on some nutritional and textural properties of bambara groundnuts (Voandzei subterranea) during canning. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2007, 58(4), 270–281.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gunjal, K.; Goodbody, S.; Delbaere, J.; Kenefick, E.; Rammala, V. Crop And Food Security Assessment Mission To Zimbabwe. 2009, FAO, WFP.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips, J.G.; Cane, M.A.; Rosenzweig, C. ENSO, seasonal rainfall patterns and simulated maize yield variability in Zimbabwe. Agric. Forest Meteorol. 1998, 90, 39–50.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proctor, S.; Henson, S.; Loader, R.; Masakure, O.; Brouder, A.; Bhila, L.; Sigauke, N. Facilitating The Effective Production And Marketing Of Processed Food Products By Small-Scale Producers In Zimbabwe. 2000, DFID.
   Google Scholar
• Amarteifio, J.O.; Tibe, O.; Njogu, R.M. The Nutrient Composition Of Bambara Groundnut Landraces (Vigna Subterreanea, (L.) Verdc.) Cultivated In Southern Africa. Agricultura Tropica Et Subtropica. 2010, 43(1).
   Google Scholar
• Mkandawire, C.H.; Review of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc.). Prod. in Sub-Sahara Afr. Agric. J. 2007, 2(4), 464–470.
   Google Scholar
• Azam-Ali, S.N.; Sesay, A.; Karikari, S.K.; Massawe, F.J.; Aguilar-Manjarrez, J.; Bannayan, M.; Hampson, K.J. Assessing the potential of underutilized crop. A case study using bambara groundnut. Expl Agric. 2001, 37, 433–472.
   Google Scholar
• Swanevelder, C.J. Bambara food for Africa (Vigna subterranea). National Department of Agriculture: Republic of South Africa, 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Azam-Ali, S.; Aguilar-Manjarrez, J.; Bannayan-Avval, M. A Global Mapping System for Bambara Groundnut Production. In Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations. 2001.
   Google Scholar
• Berchie, J.N.; Adu-Dapaah, H.K.; Dankyi, A.A.; Plahar, W.A.; Nelson-Quartey, F.; Haleegoah, J.; Asaf-Agyei, J.N.; Addo, J.K. Practices and constraints in Bambara groundnuts production, marketing and consumption in the Brong Abafo and Upper East regions of Ghana. J. Agro. 2011, 9(3), 111–118.
   Google Scholar
• Nti, C.A. Effects of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) variety and processing on the quality and consumer appeal for its products. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2009, 44, 2234–2242.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ani, D.P.; Umeh, J.C.; Ekwe, K.C. Bambara Groundnut as Panacea for Food Security: Profitability and Production Efficiency in Benue State, Nigeria. In Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on Underutilized Plants Species “Crops for the Future – Beyond Food Security”, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Enwere, N.J.; Hung, Y.C. Some chemical and physical properties of bambara groundnut seeds and products. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 1996, 47, 469–475.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazahib, A.M.; Nuha, M.O.; S., S.I.; Babiker, E.E. Some nutritional attributes of bambara groundnut as influenced by domestic processing. Int. Food Res. J. 2013, 20(3), 1165–1171.
   Google Scholar
• Linnemann, A.R. Bambara groundnut Vigna subterranean. A review. Abstracts on Tropical Agriculture. 1987, 12(7), 9–25.
   Google Scholar
• Amarteifio, J.O.; Moholo, D. The Chemical Composition of Four Legumes Consumed in Botswana. J. Food Comp. Analy. 1998, 11, 329–332.
   Google Scholar
• Onwuka, U.N.; Abasiekong, K.S. Production and evaluation of chocolate bars from roasted and unroasted african breadfruit, and bambara groundnut flours. J. Food Proc. Preserv. 2006, 30, 534–548.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aykroyd, W.R.; Doughty, J.; Ann, W. Legumes in human nutrition. Food & Agriculture Org., 1982, pp 45–53.
   Google Scholar
• El‐Tabey Shehata, A.M. Hard‐to‐cook phenomenon in legumes. Food Rev. Int. 1992, 8(2) 191–221.
   Google Scholar
• Onayemi, O.; Osibogun, O. Effect of different storage and cooking methods on some biochemical, nutritional and sensory characteristics of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp). J. Food Sci. 1986, 51(1), 153–156.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El‐Moniem, G.M.A. Sensory evaluation and in vitro protein digestibility of mung bean as affected by cooking time. J. Sci. Food Agric. 1999, 79(14), 2025–2028.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanley, D.W. Hard Beans—A Problem for Growers, Processors, and Consumers. HortTechnology. 1992, 2(3), 370–378.
   Google Scholar
• Furness, C.K. Some Aspects of Fuel-wood Usage and Consumption in African Rural and Urban Areas in Zimbabwe Rhodesia. Suid-Afrikaanse Bosboutydskrif. 1979, 117.
   Google Scholar
• Bressani, R. Grain quality of common beans. Food Rev. Int. 1993, 9(2), 237–297.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cotthem, W.v. National Tree Planting Day – 3rd December 2011. In Environment Africa. 2011, Environment-Africa.
   Google Scholar
• Vermeulen, S.J.; Campbell, B.M.; Matzke, G.E. The Consumption of Wood by Rural Households in Gokwe Communal Area, Zimbabwe. Hum. Ecol. 1996, 24, 479–491.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chazovachii, B.; Chitongo, L.; Ndava, J. Reducing Urban Poverty through Fuel Wood Business in Masvingo City, Zimbabwe: A Myth or Reality. Bangl. e-J. Sociol. 2013, 10(1).
   Google Scholar
• Reyes-Moreno, C.; Okamura-Esparza, J.; Armienta-Rodelo, E.; Gómez-Garza, R.M.; Milán-Carrillo, J. Hard-to-cook phenomenon in chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L): Effect of accelerated storage on quality. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 2000, 55, 229–241.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coelho, C.M.M.; Bellato, C.d.M.; Santos, J.C.P.; Ortega, E.M.M.; Tsai, S.M. Effect of phytate and storage conditions on the development of the ‘hard-to-cook’ phenomenon in common beans. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2007, 87, 1237–1243
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martın-Cabrejas, M.A.; Esteban, R.M.; Perez, P.; Maina, G.; Waldron, K.W. Changes in Physicochemical Properties of Dry Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) during Long-Term Storage. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1997, 45, 3223–3227.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uvere, P.O.; Uwaegbute, A.C.; Adedeji, E.M. Effects of malting on the milling performance and acceptability of bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea Thouars) seeds and products. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 1999, 54.
   Google Scholar
• Ofori, K.; Kumaga, F.K.; Bimi, K.L. Variation in seed size, protein and tannin content of bambara groundnut Vigna subterranean. Tropical Sci. 2001, 41, 100–103.
   Google Scholar
• Murevanhema, Y.Y.; Jideani, V.A. Potential of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc) Milk as a Probiotic Beverage—A Review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2013, 53, 954–967.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brough, S.H.; Azam-Ali, S.N. The Effect of Soil Moisture on the Proximate Composition of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L) Verdc). J. Sci. Food Agric. 1992, 60, 197–203.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Minkaa, S.R.; Mbofunga, C.M.F.; Gandonb, C.; Bruneteau, M. The effect of cooking with kanwa alkaline salt on the chemical composition of black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Food Chem. 1999, 64, 145–148.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Annan, N.T.; Plahar, W.A.; Nti, C.A. Dessemination of improved bambara groundnut processing technologies through a new coalition arrangement to enhance rural livelihoods in Northen Ghana, in Training of Trainees workshop. 2003: Tamale Ghana.
   Google Scholar
• Basu, S.; Roberts, J.A.; Azam-Ali, S.N.; Mayes, S. Bambara Groundnut, in Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants Pulses, Sugar and Tuber Crops; Kole, C., Ed.; Springer-Verlag: Berlin Heidelberg, 2007; pp 161–173
   Google Scholar
• Ferrao, J.E.M.; Ferrao, A.M.B.C.; Antunes, A.M.G. A mancarra dos Bijagós (Vigna subterranea). Aspectos do seu valor nutricional. [Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea). Aspects of its nutritional value]. Garcia de Orta Série de Estudos Agronómicos. 1987, 14, 35–39.
   Google Scholar
• Adeyeye, E.I.; Olaleye, A.A.; Adesina, A.J. Food Properties of Hull, Dehulled and Whole Seed Samples of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna Subterranea L. Verdc). Glob. J. Sci. Frontier Res. Chem. 2013, 13(2), 9–28.
   Google Scholar
• Oyenuga, V.A. Nigeria’s Foods and Feeding stuffs: Their chemistry and nutritive value. Ibadan University Press, 1968; pp 109.
   Google Scholar
• deKock, C. Bambara Groundnut. Speciality Foods of Africa Pvt Ltd, Harare, Zimbabwe. undated.
   Google Scholar
• Poulter, N.H. Properties of Some Protein Fractions from Bambara Groundnut [Voandzeia subterranea (L.) Tliouars]. J. Sci. Food Agric. 1981, 32, 44–50.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yagoub, A.E.-G.A.; Abdalla, A.A. Effect of Domestic Processing Methods on Chemical Composition, In vitro Digestibility of Protein and Starch and Functional Properties of Bambara Groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea) Seed. Res. J. of Agric. Biol. Sci. 2007, 3(1).
   Google Scholar
• Adebowale, A.A.; Awolala, F.M.; Fetuga, G.O.; Sanni, S.A.; Adegunwa, M.O. Effect of Soaking Pre-Treatments on Nutritional Composition and Functional Properties of Bambara Groundnut (Vigna Subterranea) Flour. In Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. on Underutilized Plants Species “Crops for the Future – Beyond Food Security”, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Baryeh, E.A. Physical properties of bambara groundnuts. J. Food Eng. 2001, 47, 321–326.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berk, Z. Food Process Engineering and Technology. Elsevier Inc. 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Wilhelm, L.R.; Suter, D.A.; Brusewitz, G.H. Food & Process Engineering Technology. Amer Society of Agricultural. 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Heldman, D.R.; Lund, D. Handbook of Food Engineering. CRS Press, Taylor and Francis Group, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Jideani, V.A.; Mpotokwana, S.M. Modeling of water absorption of Botswana bambara varieties using Peleg’s equation. J. Food Eng. 2009, 92, 182–188.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mpotokwane, S.M.; Gaditlhatlhelwe, E.; Sebaka, A.; Jideani, V.A. Physical properties of bambara groundnuts from Botswana. J. Food Eng. 2008, 89, 93–98.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaptso, K.G.; Njintang, Y.N.; Komnek, A.E.; Hounhouigan, J.; Scher, J. Mbofung, C.M.F.; Physical properties and rehydration kinetics of two varieties of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and bambara groundnuts (Voandzeia subterranea) seeds. J. Food Eng. 2008, 86, 91–99.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aguilera, J.M.; Stanley, D.W. A Review of textural defects in cooked storage and processing reconstituted legumes - The Influence of structure and composition. J. Food Process. Preserv. 1985, 9, 145–169.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beninger, C.W.; Hosfield, G.L. Antioxidant activity of extracts, condensed tannin fractions, and pure flavonoids from Phaseolus vulgaris L. seed coat color genotypes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51(27), 7879–7883.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caldas, G.V.; Blair, M.W. Inheritance of seed condensed tannins and their relationship with seed-coat color and pattern genes in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Theor. Appl. Genet. 2009, 119(1), 131–142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ojimelukwe, P.C. Cooking characteristics of four cultivars of bambara groundnuts seeds and starch isolate. J. Food Biochem. 1998, 23, 109–117.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otto, T.; Baik, B.-K.; Czuchajowska, Z. Microstructure of seeds, flours, and starches of legumes. Cereal Chem. 1997, 74(4), 445–451.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tyler, R.T. Impact milling quality of grain legumes. J. Food Sci. 1984, 49(3), 925–930.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichert, R.; Oomah, B.; Youngs, C. Factors affecting the efficiency of abrasive‐type dehulling of grain legumes investigated with a new intermediate‐sized, batch dehuller. J. Food Sci. 1984, 49(1), 267–272.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahiya, P.K.; Linnemann, A.R.; Van Boekel, M.A.J.S.; Khetarpaul, N.; Grewal, R.B.; Nout, M.J.R. Mung bean: Technological and nutritional potential. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2013, 55(5), 670–688.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sefa-Dedeh, S.; Stanley, D.W.;Voisey, P.W. Effect of storage time and conditions on the hard-to-cook defect in cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata). J. Food Sci. 1979, 44.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plahar, W.A.; Annan, N.T. Evaluation of soybean cultivars for traditional food uses in Ghana: Varietal effects on quality characteristics of soymilk and full-fat soy flour extracts. In NARP Project Report. Food Research Institute: Accra, Ghana, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Poulter, N.H.; Caygill, J.C. Vegetable milk processing and rehydration characteristics of bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea (L.) Thouars). J. Sci. Food Agric. 1980, 31, 1158–1163.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arogba, S.S.; Abu, J.D. Environmental variables affect the hard-to-cook phenomenon of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) seed. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 1999, 53, 305–311.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia, E.; Filisetti, T.M.C.C.; Udaeta, J.E.M.; Lajolo, F.M. Hard-to-cook beans (Phaseolus vulgaris): Involvement of phenolic compounds and pectates. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1998, 46, 2110–2116.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hincks, M.J.; McCannel, A.; Stanley, D.W. Hard-to-cook defect in black beans. Soaking and cooking processes. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1987, 35(4), 583–588.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hohlberg, A.I.; Stanley, D.W. Hard-to-cook defect in black beans. Protein and starch considerations. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1987, 35, 571–576.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berrios, J.d.J.; Swanson, B.G.; Cheong, W.A. Structural characteristics of stored black beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris L.). Scanning 1998, 20, 410–417.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stanley, D.W. A possible role for condensed hardening tannins in bean. Food Res. Int. 1992, 25, 187–I 192.
   Google Scholar
• Stanley, D.W.; Aguilera, J.M. A review of textural defects in cooked reconstitued legumes: the influence of structure and composition. J. Food Biochem. 1985, 9, 277–323.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia, E.; Lajolo, F.M. Starch alterations in hard-to-cook beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). J. Agric. Food Chem. 1984, 42, 612–615.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maurer, G.A.; Ozen, B.F.; Maurer, L.J.; Nielsen, S.S. Analysis of hard-to-cook red and black common beans using fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2004, 52, 1470–1477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hincks, M.J.; Sanley, D.W. Lignification: Evidence for a role in hard to cook beans. J. Food Bioch. 1986, 11, 41–58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aguilera, J.M.; Rivera, R. Hard-to-cook defect in black beans: Hardening rates, water imbibition and multiple mechanism hypothesis. Food Res. Int. 1992, 25, 101–108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• del-Valle, J.M.; Stanley, D.W. Reversible and irreversible components of bean hardening. Food Res. Int. 1995, 28(5), 455–463.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aguilera, J.M. Why food microstructure. J. Food Eng. 2005, 67, 3–11.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pirhayati, M.; Soltanizadeh, N.; Kadivar, M. Chemical and microstructural evaluation of ‘hard-to-cook’ in legumes (pinto bean and small-type lentil. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2011, 46, 1884–1890.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mafuleka, M.M.; Ott, D.B.; Hosfield, G.L.; Uebersax, M.A. The role of phytase and lignin in decorticated dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) hardening during storage. J. Food Process. Preserv. 1993, 17, 1–20.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Afoakwa, E.O.; Sefa-Dedeh, S. Changes in cell wall constituents and mechanical properties during post-harvest hardening of trifoliate yam Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) pax tubers. Food Res. Int. 2002, 35, 429–434.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiga, T.M.; Lajolo, F.M.; Filisetti, T.M.C.C. Changes in the cell wall polysaccharides during storage and hardening of beans. Food Chem. 2004, 84, 53–64.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shomer, I.; Paster, N.; Lindner, P.; Vasiliver, R. The role of cell wall structure in the hard to cook phenomenon in beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Food Struc. 1990, 9, 139–145.
   Google Scholar
• Yousif, A.M.; Deeth, H.C.; Caffin, N.A.; Lisle, A.T. Effect of storage time and conditions on the hardness and cooking quality of Adzuki (Vigna angularis). Lebensm.-Wiss. u.-Technol. 2002, 35, 338–343.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiga, T.M.; Cordenunsi, B.R.; Lajolo, F.M. Effect of cooking on non-starch polysaccharides of hard-to-cook beans. Carbohydr. Polym. 2008, 76, 100–109.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Srisuma, N.; Hammerschmdt, R.; Uebersax, M.A.; Ruengsakulrach, S.; Bennink, M.R.; Hosfield, G.L. Storage induced changes of phenolic acids and the development of hard-to-cook in dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris, var. Seafarer). J. Food Sci. 1989, 54(2), 311–318.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiga, T.M.; Cordenunsi, B.R.; Lajolo, F.M. The effect of storage on the solubilization pattern of bean hull non-starch polysaccharides. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2011, 83, 362–367.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiga, T.M.; Lajolo, F.M. Cell wall polysaccharides of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)—composition and structure. Carbohydr. Polym. 2006, 63, 1–12.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medoua, G.N.; Mbofung, C.M.F. Hard-to-cook defect in trifoliate yam Dioscorea dumetorum tubers after harvest. Food Res. Int. 2006, 39, 513–518.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medoua, G.N.; Mbome, I.l.L.; Agbor-Egbe, T.; Mbofung, C.M.F. Study of the hard-to-cook property of stored yam tubers (Dioscorea dumetorum) and some determining biochemical factors. Food Res. Int. 2005, 38, 143–149.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rocha-Guzmana, N.E.; J.A. Gallegos-Infantea; R.F. Gonzalez-Laredoa; P.A. Castillo-Antonio; E. Delgado-Licona; Ibarra-Perez, F. Functional properties of three common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) cultivars stored under accelerated conditions followed by extrusion. LWT. 2006, 39, 6–10.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narasimha, H.V.; Srinivas, T.; Dsesikachar, H.S.R. A histological basis for ‘hard-to-cook’ phenomenon in red gram (Cajanus calan) cultivars. J. Food Sci. 1989, 54(1), 125–131.
   Google Scholar
• Molina, M.R.; Baten, M.A.; Gomez-Brenes, R.A.; King, K.W.; Bressani, R. Heat treatment: A process to control the development of the hard to cooh phenomena in black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). J. Food Sci. 1976, 41, 661–666.
   Google Scholar
• Machado, C.M.; FerruziI, M.G.; Nielsen, S.S. Impact of the hard-to-cook phenomenon on phenolic antioxidants in dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 3102–3110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nasar-Abbasa, S.M.; Plummera, J.A.; Siddique, K.H.M.; White, P.; Harris, D.; Dods, K. Cooking quality of faba bean after storage at high temperature and the role of lignins and other phenolics in bean hardening. LWT. 2007, 1260–1267.
   Google Scholar
• Hussain, A.; Watts, B.M.; Bushuk, W. Hard-to-cook phenomenon in beans: Changes in protein electrophoretic patterns during storage. J. Food Sci. 1989, 54(5), 1367–1368.
   Google Scholar
• Hentges, D.L.; Weaver, C.M.; Nielsen, S.S. Changes of selected physical and chemical components in the development of the hard-to-cook bean defect. J. Food Sci. 1991, 56(2).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moreno, C.R.; López, O.P.;Gonzalez, E. Hard to cook phenomenon in common beans — A review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1993, 33(3), 227–286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uzogara, S.G.; Morton, I.D.; Daniel, J.W. Changes in some antinutrients of cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) processed with ‘kanwa’ alkaline salt. Plant Foods for Hum. Nutr. 1990, 40, 249–258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kyriakidis, N.B.; Apostolidis, A.; Papazoglou, L.E.; Karathanos, V.T. Physicochemical Studies of Hard-to-Cook Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). J. Sci. Food Agric. 1997, 74, 186È192.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de-Leon, L.F.; Elias, L.G.; Bressani, R. Effect of salt solutions on the cooking time, nutritional and sensory characteristics of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris). Food Res. Int. 1992, 25, 131–136.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bellidoa, G.; Arntfielda, S.D.; Cenkowskib, S.; Scanlon, M. Effects of micronization pretreatments on the physicochemical properties of navy and black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). LWT. 2006, 779–787.
   Google Scholar
• Garcia-Vela, L.A.; del-Valle, J.M.; Stanley, D.W. Hard-to-cook defect in black beans: The effect of soaking in various aqueous salt solutions. Can. Inst. Sd. Technol. J. 1991, 14, 60–67.
   Google Scholar
• Madodé, Y.E.; Houssou, P.A.; Linnemann, A.R.; Hounhouigan, D.J.; Nout, M.J.R.; Boekel, M.A.J.S.V. Preparation, consumption, and nutritional composition of West African cowpea dishes. Ecol. Food Nutr. 2011, 50, 115–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uzogara, S.G.; Morton, I.D.; Daniel, J.W.; Quality Changes and Mineral Content of Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) Seeds Processed with ‘Kanwa’ Alkaline Salt. Food Chem. 1988, 30, 1–18.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uzogara, S.G.; Mortona, I.D.; Daniela, J.W.; Emerya, P.W. Effect of ‘Kanwa’ treatment of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) seed flour on protein quality as measured by growth rate assays in rats. Ecol. Food Nutr. 1991, 25(1), 79–89.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CTDT. Consumption of Indegenous foods in Zimbabwe. Users guide and recipe book. International Development Research Centre, undated; pp 32–37.
   Google Scholar
• Madode, Y.E.; Houssou, P.A.; Linnemann, A.R.; Hounhouigan, D.J.; Nout, M.J.;Van Boekel, M.A. Preparation, consumption, and nutritional composition of west African cowpea dishes. Ecol Food Nutr. 2011, 50(2), 115–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, K.; Bourne, M.C. Cellular, biological, and physicochemical basis for the hard to cook defect in legume seeds. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 1995, 35(4), 263–298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia-Vela, L.A.; Stanley, D.W. Water-holding capacity in hard-to-cook beans (Phaseolus vulgaris): Effect of pH and ionic strength. J. Food Sci. 1989, 54(4), 1080–1081.
   Google Scholar
• del-Valle, J.M.; Cottrell, T.J.; Jackman, R.L.; Stanley, D.W. Hard-to-cook defect in black beans: the contribution of proteins to salt soaking effects. Food Res. Int. 1992, 25, 429–436.
   Google Scholar
• Friedman, M.; Chemistry, biochemistry, nutrition, and microbiology of lysinoalanine, lanthionine, and histidinoalanine in food and other proteins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1999, 47(4), 1295–1319.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman, M.; Levin, C.E.; Noma, A.T. Factors governing lysinoalanine formation in soy proteins. J. Food Sci. 1984, 49(5), 1282–1288.
   Google Scholar
• Karayiannis, N.; Macgregor, J.T.; Bjeldanes, L.F. Lysinoalanine formation in alkali-treated proteins and model peptides. Food Cosm. Toxicol. 1979, 17(6), 585–590.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sreerama, Y.N.; Sashikala, V.B.; Pratape, V.M. Effect of enzyme pre-dehulling treatments on dehulling and cooking properties of legumes. J. Food Eng. 2009, 92, 389–395.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brough, S.H.; Azam-AIi, S.N.; Taylor, A.J. The potential of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) in vegetable milk production and basic protein functionality systems. Food Chem. 1993, 47, 277–283.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alobo, A.P. Production and organoleptic assessment of akara from bambara groundnut (Voandzeia subterranea (L.) Thouars). Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 1999, 53, 313–320.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yusuf, A.A.; Ayedun, H.; Sanni, L.O. Chemical composition and functional properties of raw and roasted Nigerian benniseed (Sesamum indicum) and bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean. Food Chem. 2008, 111, 277–282.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abiodun, A.O.; Adepeju, A.B. Effect of processing on the chemical, pasting and anti-nutritional composition of bambara nut (Vigna subterranea L. Verdc) flour. Adv. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2011, 3(4), 224–227.
   Google Scholar
• Emmambux, M.N.; Taylor, J.R.N. Morphology, physical, chemical, and functional properties of starches from cereals, legumes, and tubers cultivated in Africa: A review. Starch/Starke. 2013, 65, 715–729.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barimalaa, I.S.; Anoghalu, S.C. Effect of processing on certain antinutrients in bambara groundnut (vigna subterranea) cotyledons. J. Sci. Food Agric. 1997, 73, 186–188.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fadahunsi, I.F.; Olubunmi, P.D. Microbiological and enzymatic studies during the development of an ‘Iru’ (a local Nigerian indigenous fermented condiment) like condiment from Bambara Nut [Voandzeia subterranea (L) Thours]. Malay. J. Microbiol. 2010, 6, 123–126.
   Google Scholar
• Oboh, G.; Ademiluyi, A.O.; Akindahunsi, A.A. Changes in polyphenols distribution and antioxidant activity during fermentation of some underutilized legumes. Food Sci. Tech. Int. 2009, 15(41), 41–46.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fadahunsi, I.F. The Effect of Soaking, Boiling and Fermentation with Rhizopus oligosporus on the Water Soluble Vitamin Content of Bambara Groundnut. Pak. J. Nutr. 2009, 8(6), 835–840.
   Google Scholar
• Fadahunsi, I.F.; Sanni, A.I. Chemical and biochemical changes in bambara nut (Voandzeia subterranea (L) Thours) during fermentation to tempeh. Electr. J. Envir. Agric. Food Chemi. 2010, 9(2), 275–283.
   Google Scholar
• Ademiluyi, A.O.; Oboh, G. Antioxidant properties of condiment produced from fermented bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean L. Verdc). J. Food Biochem. 2011, 35, 1145–1160.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amadi, E.N.; Barimalaa, I.S.; Omosigho, J. Influence of temperature on the fermentation of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) to produce a dawadawa-type product. Plant Foods for Hum. Nutr. 1999, 54, 13–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amadi, E.N.; Uneze, R.; Barimalaa, I.S.; Achinewhu, S.C. Studies on the production of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea) tempe. Plant Foods for Hum. Nutr. 1999, 53, 199–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim, T. Vigna subterranea. In Edible Medicinal And Non-Medicinal Plants. Springer, 2012; pp 960–966.
   Google Scholar
• Clover, J. Food Security in sub-Saharan Africa. African Security Rev. 2003, 12(1), 5–15.
   Google Scholar
• Onayemi, O. Osibogun, O. Effect of different storage and cooking methods on some biochemical, nutritional and sensory characteristics of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp). J Food Sci. 1986, 51(1), 153–156.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abu-Salem, F.M. Abou-Arab, A.A. Effect of supplementation of Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean L.) flour on the quality of biscuits. Afri. J. Food Sci. 2011, 5(7), 376–383.
   Google Scholar
• Ijarotimi, O.S. Nutritional composition, microbial status, functional and sensory properties of infant diets formulated from cooking banana fruits (Musa spp, ABB genome) and fermented bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean L. Verdc) seeds. Nutr Food Sci. 2008, 38(4).
   Google Scholar
• Kone, M.; Paice, A.G. Toure, Y. Bambara Groundnut [Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc. (Fabaceae)] Usage in Human Health, in Nuts & Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention. Elsevier, 2011; pp 190–195.
   Google Scholar
• Nwokolo, E. A nutritional assessment of African Yam bean Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst ex A. Rich) harms and Bambara Groundnut Voandzeia subterranea L. J. Sci. Food Agric. 1987, 41, 123–129.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ijarotimi, O. Olopade, A. Determination of amino acid content and protein quality of complementary food produced from locally available food materials in Ondo State, Nigeria. Malay. J Nutri. 2009, 15(1), 87–95.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amarteifio, J.O.; Karikari, S.K.Modise, O.J. The proximate composition and mineral composition of six landraces of Botswana bambara groundnut. Trop. Sci. 2002, 42, 188–191
   Google Scholar
• Amarteifio, J.O.; Tibe, O.; Njogu, R.M. The mineral composition of bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea (L) Verdc) grown in Southern Africa. Afri. J. Biotechnol. 2006, 5(23), 2408–2411.
   Google Scholar
• Ijarotimi, O. Olopade, A. Determination of amino acid content and protein quality of complementary food produced from locally available food materials in Ondo State, Nigeria. Malay. J Nutri. 2009, 15(1), 87–95.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar