Irrigation water quality and microbial safety of leafy greens in different vegetable production systems: A review

References

• Uyttendaele, M.; Jaykus, L.; Amoah, P.; Chiodini, A.; Cunliffe, D.; Jacxsens, L.; Holvoet, K.; Korsten, L.; Lau, M.; McClure, P.; Medema, G.; Sampers, I.; Jasti, P.R. Microbial hazards in irrigation water: Standards, norms, and testing to manage use of water in fresh produce primary production. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2015, 14, 336–356.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization (WHO). Microbiological hazards in fresh leafy vegetables and herbs: Meeting report, Rome. Microbiol. Risk Assess. Series 2008, 14, 151.
   Google Scholar
• Koike, S.; Cahn, M.; Cantwell, M.; Fennimore, S.; Lestrange, M.; Smith, R.; Takele, E. Spinach production in California. UC Vegetable Research and Information Center, 2011, 1–6.
   Google Scholar
• Buchholz, A.L.; Davidson, G.R.; Marks, B.P.; Todd, E.C.; Ryser, E.T. Quantitative transfer of Escherichia coli O157: H7to equipment during small-scale production of fresh-cut leafy greens. J. Food Prot. 2012, 75, 1184–1197.
   Google Scholar
• Erickson, M.C.; Liao, J.; Payton, A.S.; Webb, C.C.; Ma, L.; Zhang, G.; Flitcroft, I.; Doyle, M.P.; Beuchat, L.R. Fate of Escherichia coli O157:H7and Salmonella in soil and lettuce roots as affected by potential home gardening practices. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2013, 93, 3841–3849. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.6321.
   Google Scholar
• Food and Agricultural Organization. National food safety systems in Africa-A situation analysis. National Food Safety Systems in Africa, 2008. ftp://ftp.fao.org/es/esn/food/meetings/2005/italy_crd5_en.pdf (accessed January 10, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Jahan, S. Epidemiology of foodborne illness. Scientific, health and social aspects of the food industry. In Technology; Valdez, B. Ed.; 2012; pp 321–342. http://www.intechopen.com/books/scientific-health-and-social-aspects-of-the-food-industry/epidemiology-offoodborne-illness (accessed January 8, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Gemmell, M.E.; Schmidt, S. Is the microbiological quality of the Msunduzi River (KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) suitable for domestic, recreational, and agricultural purposes? Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2013, 20, 6551–6562.
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed, W.; Gardner, T.; Toze, S. Microbiological quality of roof-harvested rainwater and health risks: A review. J. Environ. Qual. 2011, 40, 13–21.
   Google Scholar
• Chidamba, L.; Korsten, L. Pyrosequencing analysis of roof-harvested rainwater and river water used for domestic purposes in Luthengele village in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa Environ. Monit. Assess. 2015, 187, 41.
   Google Scholar
• Suslow, T.V.; Oria, M.P.; Beuchat, L.R.; Garrett, E.H.; Parish, M.E.; Harris, L.J.; Farber, J.N.; Busta, F.F. Production practices as risk factors in microbial food safety of fresh and fresh cut produce. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2003, 2, 38–77.
   Google Scholar
• Simmons, G.; Hope, V.; Lewis, G.; Whitmore, J.; Gao, W.Z. Contamination of potable roof-collected rainwater in Auckland, New Zealand. Water Res. 2001, 35, 1518–1524.
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed, W.; Brandes, H.; Gyawali, P.; Sidhu J.P.S.; Toze S. Opportunistic pathogens in roof-captured rainwater samples, determined using quantitative PCR. Water Res. 2014, 5, 361–369.
   Google Scholar
• Baron, E.J. Conventional versus molecular methods for pathogen detection and the role of clinical microbiology in infection control. J. Clini. Microbiol. 2011, 49, 43.
   Google Scholar
• Abakpaa, G.O.; Umoha, V.J.; Ameha, J.B.; Yakubua, S.E.; Ibekweb, A.M. Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of pathogenic Escherichia coli O157 in fresh produce obtained from irrigated fields. Environ. Tech. Innov. 2015, 4, 1–7.
   Google Scholar
• Aijuka, M.; Charimba, G.; Hugo, C.; Buys, E.M. Characterization of bacterial pathogens in rural and urban irrigation water. J. Water Health 2015. doi:10.2166/wh.2014.228.
   Google Scholar
• Du Plessis, E.; Duvenage, F.; Korsten, L. Determining the potential link between irrigation water quality and the microbiological quality of onions by phenotypic and genotypic characterization of Escherichia coli isolates. J. Food Prot. 2015, 78, 643–651.
   Google Scholar
• Vörösmarty, C.J.; Green, P.; Salisbury, J.; Lammers, R.B. Global water resources: Vulnerability from climate change and population growth. Science 2000, 289, 284–288.
   Google Scholar
• Zamxaka, M.; Pironcheva, G.; Muyima, N.Y.O. Microbiological and physico-chemical assessment of the quality of domestic water sources in selected rural communities of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Water SA 2004, 30, 333–340.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, S.H.; Levy, D.A.; Craun, G.F.; Beach, M.J.; Calderon, R.L. Surveillance for waterborne-disease outbreaks-United States, 1999–2000. Division of Parasitic Diseases National Center for Infectious Diseases, CDC, USA. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries (Washington, D.C.) 2002, 51, 1–47.
   Google Scholar
• Kahinda, J.M.; Taigbenu, A.E.; Boroto, J.R. Domestic rainwater harvesting to improve water supply in rural South Africa. Phys. Chem. Earth PT A/B/C 2007, 32, 1050–1057.
   Google Scholar
• James, J. Overview of microbial hazards in fresh fruit and vegetables operations, in microbial hazard identification in fresh fruit and vegetables. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Water Sources. Atlanta, Georgia, 2009. https://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/drinking/public/water_sources.html (accessed January 9, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Taylor, R.G.; Scanlon, B.; Döll, P.; Rodell, M.; van Beek, R.; Wada, Y.; Longuevergne, L.; Leblanc, M.; Famiglietti, J.S.; Edmunds, M.; Konikow, L.; Green, T.R.; Chen, J.; Taniguchi, M.; Bierkens, M.F.P.; MacDonald, A.; Fan, Y.; Maxwell, R.M.; Yechieli, Y.; Gurdak, J.J.; Allen, D.M.; Shamsudduha, M.; Hiscock, K.; Yeh, P.J-F.; Holman, I.; Treidel, H. Ground water and climate change. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2013, 3, 322–329.
   Google Scholar
• Water Research Commission. Groundwater use potential for South Africa. Discussion paper. Report no. KV 23/2016. Pretoria, South Africa. 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. A CSIR perspective on water in South Africa–2013 . CSIR Report No. CSIR/NRE/PW/IR/2011/0012/A. 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Pimentel, D.; Berger, B.; Filiberto, D.; Newton, M.; Wolfe, B.; Karabinakis. E.; Clark, S.; Poon, E.; Abbett, E.; Nandagopal S. Water resources: Agricultural and environmental issues. BioScience. 2004, 54, 909–918.
   Google Scholar
• Pedrero, F.; Kalavrouziotis, I.; Alarcon, J. J.; Koukoulakis, P.; Asano, T. Use of treated municipal wastewater in irrigated agriculture. Review of some practices in Spain and Greece. Agric. Water Manage. 2010, 97, 1233–1241.
   Google Scholar
• Xu, C. P.; Wu, W. Y.; Liu, H. L.; Shi, Y. W.; Yang, S. L. Effect of reclaimed water irrigation on the yield and quality of leaf vegetables. Irrig. Drain. 2010, 29, 23–26.
   Google Scholar
• Jongman, M.; Korsten, L. Microbial quality and suitability of roof-harvested rainwater in rural villages for crop irrigation and domestic use. J. Water Health 2016, 14. p.wh2016058.
   Google Scholar
• Viljoen, M.F; Kundhlande, G.; Baiphethi, M.N.; Esterhuyse P.; Botha, J.J.; Anderson, J.J.; Minkley, G.W. An assessment of the social and economic acceptability of rainwater harvesting and conservation practices in selected peri-urban and rural communities. WRC Report No. 1648/1/12. Pretoria, South Africa, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Li, B.; Jackson, S.A.; Gangiredla, J.; Wang, W.; Liu, H.; Tall, B.D.; Beaubrun, J.J.; Jay-Russell, M.; Vellidis, G.; Elkins, C.A. Genomic evidence reveals numerous Salmonella enterica serovar Newport reintroduction events in Suwannee watershed irrigation ponds. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2015, 81, 8243–8253.
   Google Scholar
• World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Facts and trends: Water. Earthprint Ltd,: Conches-Geneva, Switzerland; 2015; 1–16.
   Google Scholar
• Baleta, H.; Pegram, G. Water as an input in the food value chain. Understanding the food energy water nexus. WWF-SA, South Africa, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Neu, T.R.; Lawrence, J.R. Development and structure of microbial biofilms in river water studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 1997, 24, 11–25.
   Google Scholar
• Sigge, G.; Fitchet, T. Food safety in the limelight, South Africa. Food Rev. 2009, 36, 14–16.
   Google Scholar
• Ijabadeniyi, O.A.; Buys, E.M. Irrigation water and microbiological safety of fresh produce; South Africa as a case study: A review. Afri. J. Agric. Res. 2012, 7, 4848–4857.
   Google Scholar
• Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. South African water quality guidelines, 2nd edn, Vol. 4: Agricultural water use: Irrigation, Pretoria, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Paruch, A.M.; Mæhlum, T.; Robertson, L. Changes in microbial quality of irrigation water under different weather conditions in southeast Norway. Environ. Process. 2015, 2, 115–124.
   Google Scholar
• Kahinda, J.M.; Taigbenu A.E. Rainwater harvesting in South Africa: Challenges and opportunities. Phys. Chem. Earth 2011, 36, 968–976.
   Google Scholar
• Helmreich, B.; Horn, H. Opportunities in rainwater harvesting. Desalination 2010, 248, 118–124.
   Google Scholar
• Zhu, K.; Zhang, L.; Hart, W.; Liu, M.; Chen, H. Quality issues in harvested rainwater in arid and semi-arid Loess Plateau of northern China. J. Arid Environ. 2004, 57, 487–505.
   Google Scholar
• Dobrowsky, P.H.; De Kwaadsteniet, M.; Cloete, T.E.; Khan, W. Distribution of indigenous bacterial pathogens and potential pathogens associated with roof-harvested rainwater. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2014, 80, 2307–2316.
   Google Scholar
• Barrow, C.J. Alternative irrigation: The promise of runoff agriculture. Earthscan: New York, USA, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Castro-Ibanez, I.; Gil, M.I.; Tudela, J.A.; Ivanek, R.; Allende, A. Assessment of microbial risk factors and impact of meteorological conditions during production of baby spinach in the Southeast of Spain. Food Microbiol. 2015, 49, 173–181.
   Google Scholar
• Chigor, V.N.; Umoh, V.J.; Smith, S.I. Occurrence of Escherichia coli O157 in a river used for fresh produce irrigation in Nigeria. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2010, 9, 178–182.
   Google Scholar
• Benjamin, L.; Atwill, E.R.; Jay-Russell, M.; Cooley, M.; Carychao, D.; Gorski, L.; Mandrell, R.E. Occurrence of generic Escherichia coli, E. coli O157 and Salmonella spp. in water and sediment from leafy green produce farms and streams on the central California coast. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2013, 165, 65–76.
   Google Scholar
• Ahmed, W.; Sidhu, J.P.S.; Toze, S. An attempt to identify the likely sources of Escherichia coli harbouring toxin genes in rainwater tanks. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012. 46, 5193–5197.
   Google Scholar
• Sánchez, A.S.; Cohim, E.; Kalid, R.A. A review on physicochemical and microbiological contamination of roof-harvested rainwater in urban areas. Sustainable Water Qual. Ecol. 2015, 6, 119–137.
   Google Scholar
• Maggioni, L.; von Bothmer, R.; Poulsen, G.; Branca, F. Origin and domestication of cole crops (Brassica oleracea L.): Linguistic and literary considerations1. Econ. Bot. 2010, 64, 109–123.
   Google Scholar
• Linuqvist, K. On the origin of cultivated lettuce. Hereditas 1960, 46, 319–350.
   Google Scholar
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Crop production: Statistics division. FAOSTAT, 2015. http://faostat.fao.org/2015 (accessed February 23, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Food and Agriculture Organization. Water and the Rural Poor: Interventions for improving livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa. Rome: FAO, 2008. http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/i0132e/i0132e00.htm (accessed January 12, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Wood, J.D.; Bezanson, G.S.; Gordon, R.J.; Jamieson, R. Population dynamics of Escherichia coli inoculated by irrigation into the phyllosphere of spinach grown under commercial production conditions. Int. J Food Microbiol. 2010, 143, 198–204.
   Google Scholar
• Kirsten, J.F.; Zyl, J.V. Defining small scale farmers in the South-African context. Agrekon, 1998, 37, 560–571.
   Google Scholar
• Dees, M.W.; Lysøe, E.; Nordskog, B.; Brurberg, M.B. Bacterial communities associated with surfaces of leafy greens: Shift in composition and decrease in richness over time. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2015, 81, 1530–1539.
   Google Scholar
• Lindow, S.E.; Brandl, M.T. Microbiology of the phyllosphere. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2003, 69, 1875–1883.
   Google Scholar
• Jackson, C.R.; Randolph, K.C.; Osborn, S.L.; Tyler, H.L. Culture dependent and independent analysis of bacterial communities associated with commercial salad leaf vegetables. BMC Microbiol. 2013, 13, 274.
   Google Scholar
• Rastogi, G.; Tech, J.J.; Coaker, G.L.; Leveau, J.H.J. A PCR-based toolbox for the culture-independent quantification of total bacterial abundances in plant environments. J. Microbiol. Methods 2010, 83, 127–132.
   Google Scholar
• Nygard, K.; Lassen, J.; Vold, L.; Andersson, Y.; Fisher, I.; Lofdahl, S.; Threlfall, J.; Luzzi, I.; Peters, T.; Hampton, M.; Torpdahl, M.; Kapperud, G.; Aavitsland, P. Outbreak of Salmonella Thompson infections linked to imported rucola lettuce. Foodborne Path. Dis. 2008, 5, 165–173.
   Google Scholar
• Center for Disease Control and Prevention. List of selected multistate foodborne outbreak investigations. Atlanta, Georgia, 2016. https://www.cdc.gov/foodsafety/outbreaks/multistate-outbreaks/outbreaks-list.html (accessed January 3, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Gemmell, M.E.; Schmidt, S. Potential links between irrigation water quality and microbiological quality of food in subsistence farming in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. In Current research, technology and education. Topics in applied microbiology and microbial biotechnology. 2010; pp 1190–1195.
   Google Scholar
• Olaimat, A.N.; Holley, R.A. Factors influencing the microbial safety of fresh produce: A review. Food Microbiol. 2012, 32, 1–19.
   Google Scholar
• Buck, J.W.; Walcott, R.R.; Beuchat, L.R. Recent trends in microbiological safety of fruits and vegetables. Plant Health Prog. 2003 doi:10.1094/PHP-2003-0121-01-RV.
   Google Scholar
• Buchholz, U.; Bernard, H.; Werber, D.; Böhmer, M.M.; Remschmidt, C.; Wilking, H.; Deleré, Y.; an der Heiden, M.; Adlhoch, C.; Dreesman, J.; Ehlers, J. German outbreak of Escherichia coli O104: H4 associated with sprouts. N. Engl. J. Med. 2011, 365(19), 1763–1770.
   Google Scholar
• Marder, E.P.; Garman, K.N.; Ingram, L.A.; Dunn. J.R. 2014. Multistate outbreak of Escherichia coli O157: H7associated with bagged salad. Foodborne Path. Dis. 2014, 11, 593–595.
   Google Scholar
• Luna-Gierke, R.E.; Griffin, P.M.; Gould, L.H.; Herman, K.; Bopp, C.A.; Strockbine, N.; Mody, R.K. Outbreaks of non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infection: USA. Epidemiol. Infect. 2014, 142, 2270–2280.
   Google Scholar
• Herman, K.M.; Hall, A.J.; Gould, L.H. Outbreaks attributed to fresh leafy vegetables, United States, 1973–2012. Epidemiol. Infect. 2015, 143, 3011–3021.
   Google Scholar
• Center for Disease Control and Prevention. List of selected multistate foodborne outbreak investigations. Atlanta, Georgia. 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Multistate outbreak of human E. coli O145 infections linked to shredded romaine lettuce from a single processing facility. Atlanta, Georgia, 2010. http://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/2010/shredded-romaine-5-21-10.html (accessed January 10, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• Stephan, R.; Althaus, D.; Kiefer, S.; Lehner, A.; Hatz, C.; Schmutz, C.; Jost, M.; Gerber, N.; Baumgartner, A.; Hachler, H.; Mausezahl-Feuz, M. Foodborne transmission of Listeria monocytogenes via ready-to-eat salad: A nationwide outbreak in Switzerland, 2013–2014. Food Control 2015, 57, 14–17.
   Google Scholar
• Smith deWaal, C.; Bhuiya, F. Outbreaks by the numbers: Fruits and vegetables 1990–2005. Center for Science in the Public Interest: Washington, DC; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Nygard, K.; Lassen, J.; Vold, L.; Andersson, Y.; Fisher, I.; Lofdahl, S.; Threlfall, J.; Luzzi, I.; Peters, T.; Hampton, M.; Torpdahl, M.; Kapperud, G.; Aavitsland, P. Outbreak of Salmonella Thompson infections linked to imported rucola lettuce. Foodborne Path. Dis. 2008, 5, 165–173.
   Google Scholar
• Akhtar, S.; Sarker, M.R.; Hossain, A. Microbiological food safety: A dilemma of developing societies. Crit. Rev. Microbial. 2014, 40, 348–359.
   Google Scholar
• Edelstein, M.; Sundborger, C.; Hergens, M.P.; Ivarsson, S.; Dryselius, R.; Insulander, M.; Jernberg, C.; Hutin, Y.; Wallensten, A. Barriers to trace-back in a salad-associated EHEC outbreak, Sweden, June 2013. PLoS Currents 2013, 6. http://currents.plos.org/outbreaks/article/barriers-to-trace-back-in-a-salad-associated-ehec-outbreak-swedenjune-2013 (accessed September 25, 2014).
   Google Scholar
• Soderstrom, A.; Osterberg, P.; Lindqvist, A.; Jonsson, B.; Lindberg, A.; Blide Ulander, S.; Welinder-Olsson, C.; Lofdahl, S.; Kaijser, B.; De Jong, B. A large Escherichia coli O157 outbreak in Sweden associated with locally produced lettuce. Foodborne Pathog. Dis. 2008, 5, 339–349.
   Google Scholar
• California Department of Health Services and United States Food and Drug Administration. Investigation of an Escherichia coli O157:H7outbreak associated with Dole pre–packaged spinach. 2007. http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/ehs/Docs/Investigation_of_an_E_Coli_Outbreak_Associated_with_Dole_Pre-Packaged_Spinach.pdf (accessed November 1, 2016).
   Google Scholar
• United States Food and Drug Administration and California Food Emergency Response Team. Investigation of the Taco John’s Escherichia coli O157: H7Outbreak Associated with Iceberg Lettuce. Department of Health: Sacramento, CA, 2008; 41.
   Google Scholar
• Greene, S.K.; Daly, E.R.; Talbot, E.A.; Demma, L.J.; Holzbauer, N.; Patel, N.J.; Hill, T.A.; Walderhaug, M.A.; Hoekstra, R.; Lynch, M.F.; Painter, J.A. Recurrent multistate outbreak of Salmonella Newport associated with tomatoes from contaminated fields, 2005. Epidemiol. Infect. 2008, 136, 157–165.
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Outbreak of Salmonella serotype Saintpaul infections associated with multiple raw produce items—United States2008, . MMWR 2008, 57, 929–934.
   Google Scholar
• Cooley, M.; Carychao, D.; Crawford-Miksza, L.; Jay, M.T.; Myers, C.; Rose, C.; Keys, C.; Farrar, J.; Mandrell, R.E. Incidence and tracking of Escherichia coli O157: H7in a major produce production region in California. PLoS One 2007, 2. http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0001159.
   Google Scholar
• Mandrell, R.E. Tracing pathogens in fruit and vegetable production chains. In Tracing pathogens in the food chain; Brul, S., Fratamico, P.M., and McMeekin, T., Eds.; Woodhead Publishing Ltd.: Cambridge, UK, 2011; pp 548–595.
   Google Scholar
• Manas, P.; Castro, E.; De Las Heras, J. Irrigation with treated wastewater: Effects on soil, lettuce (Lactuca sativa) crop and dynamics of microorganisms. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A 2009, 44, 1261–1273.
   Google Scholar
• Pachepsky, Y.; Shelton, D.R.; McLain, J.E.T.; Patel, J.; Mandrell, R.E. Irrigation waters as a source of pathogenic microorganisms in produce: A review. Adv. Agronomy 2011, 113, 74–105.
   Google Scholar
• Allende, A.; Monaghan, J. Irrigation water quality for leafy crops: A perspective of risks and potential solutions. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health 2015, 12, 7457–7477.
   Google Scholar
• Chitarra, W.; Decastelli, L.; Garibaldi, A.; Gullino, M.L. Potential uptake of Escherichia coli O157: H7and Listeria monocytogenes from growth substrate into leaves of salad plants and basil grown in soil irrigated with contaminated water. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2014, 189, 139–145.
   Google Scholar
• Gil, M.I.; Selma, M.V.; Suslow, T.; Jacxsens, L.; Uyttendaele, M.; Allende, A. Pre- and postharvest preventive measures and intervention strategies to control microbial food safety hazards of fresh leafy vegetables. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutri. 2015, 55, 453–468.
   Google Scholar
• Erickson, M.C.; Webb, C.C.; Davey, L.E.; Payton, A.S.; Flitcroft, I.D.; Doyle, M.P. Biotic and abiotic variables affecting internalization and fate of Escherichia coli O157: H7isolates in leafy green roots. J. Food Prot. 2014, 77, 872–879.
   Google Scholar
• Erickson, M.C.; Webb, C.C.; Davey, L.E.; Payton, A.S.; Flitcroft, I.D.; Doyle, M.P. Internalization and fate of Escherichia coli O157: H7into leafy green phyllosphere tissue using various spray conditions. J. Food Prot. 2014, 77, 713–721
   Google Scholar
• Suslow, T.V. Standards for Irrigation and Foliar Contact Water. An Initiative of the Pew Charitable Trusts at Georgetown University, 2010. http://www.producesafetyproject.org/admin/assets/files/Water-Suslow-1.pdf (accessed February 10, 2015).
   Google Scholar
• Jones, S.; Shortt, R. Improving on-farm food safety through good irrigation practices. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural affairs: Ontario, Canada, 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Kisluk, G.; Yaron, S. Presence and persistence of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium in the phyllosphere and rhizosphere of spray-irrigated parsley. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2012, 78, 4030–4036.
   Google Scholar
• Beuchat, L.R. Survival of enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157: H7in bovine faeces applied to lettuce and the effectiveness of chlorinated water as a disinfectant. J. Food Prot. 1999, 62, 845–849.
   Google Scholar
• Erickson, M.C.; Webb, C.C.; az-Perez, J.C.; Phatak, S.C.; Silvoy, J.J.; Davey, L.; Payton, A.S.; Liao, J.; Ma, L.; Doyle, M.P. Surface and internalized Escherichia coli O157:H7 on field-grown spinach and lettuce treated with spray-contaminated irrigation water. J. Food Prot. 2010, 73, 1023–1029.
   Google Scholar
• Ongeng, D.; Vasquez, G.A.; Muyanja, C.; Ryckeboer, J.; Geeraerd, A.H.; Springael, D. Transfer and internalisation of Escherichia coli O157: H7and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in cabbage cultivated on contaminated manure-amended soil under tropical field conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2011, 145, 301–310.
   Google Scholar
• Heaton, J.C.; Jones, K. Microbial contamination of fruit and vegetables and the behaviour of enteropathogens in the phyllosphere: A review. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2008, 104, 613–626.
   Google Scholar
• Cooley, M.B.; Chao, D.; Mandrell, R.E. Escherichia coli O157:H7 survival and growth on lettuce is altered by the presence of epiphytic bacteria. J. Food Prot. 2006, 69, 2329–2335.
   Google Scholar
• Simko, I.; Zhou, Y.; Brandl, M.T. Downy mildew disease promotes the colonization of romaine lettuce by Escherichia coli O157: H7and Salmonella enterica. BMC Microbiol. 2015, 15, 19.
   Google Scholar
• Betts, R. Microbial update: fruit and salad. Int. Food Hyg. 2014, 25, 9–12.
   Google Scholar
• Pinto, L.; Poeta, P.; Radhouani, H.; Coelho, C.; Carvalho, C.; Rodrigues, J.; Torres, C.; Vitorino, R.; Domingues, P.; Igrejas, G. Proteomic study in an Escherichia coli strain from seagulls of the Berlengas Natural Reserve of Portugal. Genetics 2011, 1, 36–41.
   Google Scholar
• Zhao, X.; Lin, C.W.; Wang, J.; Oh, D.H. Advances in rapid detection methods for foodborne pathogens. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2014, 24, 297–312.
   Google Scholar
• Mendes Silva, D.; Domingues, L. On the track for an efficient detection of Escherichia coli in water: A review on PCR-based methods. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2015, 113, 400–411.
   Google Scholar
• Law, J.W.; Mutalib N.; Chan, K.; Lee, L. Rapid methods for the detection of foodborne bacterial pathogens: Principles, applications, advantages and limitations. Front. Microbiol. 2015, 5, 1–19.
   Google Scholar
• Dieckmann, R.; Strauch, E.; Alter, T. Rapid identification and characterization of Vibrio species using whole-cell MALDITOF mass spectrometry. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2010, 109, 199–211.
   Google Scholar
• Decristophoris, P.; Fasola, A.; Benagli, C.; Tonolla, M.; Petrini, O. Identification of Staphylococcus intermedius group by MALDITOF-MS. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 2011, 34, 45–51.
   Google Scholar
• Chidamba, L.; Korsten, L. A scoping study on the prevalence of Escherichia coli and Enterococcus species in harvested rainwater stored in tanks. Water SA 2015, 41, 501–508.
   Google Scholar
• Gomba, A.; Chidamba, L.; Korsten, L. Prevalence and serovar diversity of Salmonella spp. in primary horticultural fruit production environments. Food Control 2016, 69, 13–16.
   Google Scholar
• Neuhof, T.; Dieckmann, R.; Druzhinina, I.S.; Kubicek, C.P.; Von Dohren, H. Intact-cell MALDITOF mass spectrometry analysis of peptaibol formation by the genus Trichoderma/Hypocrea: can molecular phylogeny of species predict peptaibol structures? Microbiol. 2007, 153, 3417–3437.
   Google Scholar
• Hausdorf, L.; Mundt, K.; Winzer, M.; Cordes, C.; Frohling, A.; Schluter, O.; Klocke, M. Characterization of the cultivable microbial community in a spinach-processing plant using MALDITOF MS. Food Microbiol. 2013, 34, 406–411.
   Google Scholar
• Girones, R.; Ferrús, M.A.; Alonso, J. L.; Rodriguez-Manzano, J.; Calgua, B.; Corrêa Ade, A.; Hundesa, A.; Carratala, A.; Bofill-Mas, S. Molecular detection of pathogens in water– The pros and cons of molecular techniques. Water Res. 2010, 44, 4325–4339.
   Google Scholar
• Germini, A.; Masola, A.; Carnevali, P.; Marchelli, R. Simultaneous detection of Escherichia coli O175: H7,Salmonella spp., and Listeria monocytogenes by multiplex PCR. Food Control 2009, 20, 733–738.
   Google Scholar
• Cao, Y.; Raith, M.R.; Griffith, J.F. Droplet digital PCR for simultaneous quantification of general and human-associated fecal indicators for water quality assessment. Water Res. 2015, 70, 337–349.
   Google Scholar
• Garrido, A.; Chapela, M.J.; Roman, B.; Ferreira, M.; Lago, J.; Vieites, J.M.; Cabado, A.G. Development of a multiplex real-time PCR method for simultaneous detection of Salmonella enterica, Shigella flexneri and Listeria monocytogenes in processed food samples. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2012, 234, 571–580.
   Google Scholar
• Garrido, A.; Chapela, M-J.; Román, B.; Fajardo, P.; Vieites, J.M.; and Cabado, A.G. In-house validation of a multiplex real-time PCR method for simultaneous detection of Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli O157 and Listeria monocytogenes. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2013, 164, 92–98.
   Google Scholar
• Hindson, C.M.; Chevillet, J.R.; Briggs, H.A.; Gallichotte, E.N.; Ruf, I.K.; Hindson, B.J.; Vessella, R.L.; Tewari, M. Absolute quantification by droplet digital PCR versus analog real-time PCR. Nat. Methods 2013, 10, 1003–1005.
   Google Scholar
• Whale, A.S.; Hugget, J.F.; Cowen, S.; Speirs, V.; Shaw, J.; Ellison, S.; Foy, C.A.; Scott, D.J. Comparison of microfluidic digital PCR and conventional quantitative PCR for measuring copy number variation. Nucleic Acid Res. 2012, 40, 82–89.
   Google Scholar
• Koseki, S.; Mizuno, Y.; Kawasaki, S.; Yamamoto, K.A. Survey of iceberg lettuce for the presence of Salmonella, Escherichia coli O157: H7,and Listeria monocytogenes in Japan. J. Food Prot. 2011, 74, 1543–1546.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, J.; Tang, J.; Liu, J.; Cai, Z.; Bai, X. Development and evaluation of a multiplex PCR for simultaneous detection of five foodborne pathogens. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2012, 112, 823–830.
   Google Scholar
• Ruiz-Rueda, O.; Soler, M.; Calvó, L.; García-Gil, J. L. Multiplex real-time PCR for the simultaneous detection of Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes in food samples. Food Anal. Methods, 2011, 4, 131–138.
   Google Scholar
• Orgiazzi, A.; Bianciotto, V.; Bonfante, P.; Daghino, S.; Ghignone, S.; Lazzari, A. 454 pyrosequencing analysis of fungal assemblages from geographically distant, disparate soils reveals spatial patterning and a core mycobiome. Diversity 2013, 5, 73–98.
   Google Scholar
• Lim, Y.M.; Kim, B.K.; Kim, C.; Jung, H.S.; Kim, B.; Lee, J.; Chun. J. Assessment of soil fungal communities using pyrosequencing. J. Microbiol. 2010, 48, 284–289.
   Google Scholar
• Monchy, S.; Sanciu, G.; Jobard, M.; Rasconi, S.; Gerphagnon, M.; Chabé, M.; Cian, A.; Meloni, D.; Niquil, N.; Christaki, U.; Viscogliosi, E.; Sime-Ngando, T. Exploring and quantifying fungal diversity in freshwater lake ecosystems using rDNA cloning/sequencing and SSU tag pyrosequencing. Environ. Microbiol. 2011, 13, 1433–1453.
   Google Scholar
• Telias, A.; White, J.R.; Pahl, D.M.; Ottesen, A.R.; Walsh, C.S. Bacterial community diversity and variation in spray water sources and the tomato fruit surface. BMC Microbiol. 2011, 11, 1–13.
   Google Scholar
• Jongman, M.; Korsten, L. Genetic diversity and antibiotic resistance of Escherichia coli isolates from different leafy green production systems. J. Food Prot. 2016, 79, 1846–1853. doi:10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-16-117.
   Google Scholar
• Ateba, C.N.; Mbewe, M. Genotypic characterization of Escherichia coli O157:H7isolates from different sources in the North-West Province, South Africa, using enterobacterial intergenic concencus PCR analysis. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2014, 15, 9735–9747. doi:10.3390/ijms15069735.
   Google Scholar
• Holvoet, K.; Samper, I.; Callens, B.; Dewulf, J.; Uyttendale, M. Moderate prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli isolates from lettuce, irrigation water, andsoil. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2013, 79, 6677–6683.
   Google Scholar
• Bauer, A.W.; Kirby, W.M., Sherris, J.C.; Turck, M. Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a standardized single disk method. Tech. Bull. Regist. Med. Technol. 1966, 36, 49–52.
   Google Scholar