Fat substitutes and low-calorie fats: A compile of their chemical, nutritional, metabolic and functional properties

References

• Akoh, C. C. Food Lipids: Chemistry, Nutrition, and Biotechnology, 4th ed; CRC press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2017.
   Google Scholar
• Swinburn, B.; Egger, G. Preventive Strategies Against Weight Gain and Obesity. Obes. Rev. 3(4), 289–301. Nov 01, 2002. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1046/j.1467-789X.2002.00082.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jonnalagadda, S. S.; Jones, J. M.; Black, J. D. Position of the American Dietetic Association: Fat Replacers. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2005, 105, 266–275.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Obesity and Overweight. World Health Organization: WHO. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight 2011. (accessed Nov 1, 2020).
   Google Scholar
• Hales, C. M.; Carroll, M. D.; Fryar, C. D.; Ogden, C. L. Prevalence of Obesity and Severe Obesity Among Adults: United States, 2017-2018 Key Findings Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. HCHS Data Br. Oct 23, 2020, 360. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/index.htm
   Google Scholar
• Mirmiran, P.; Sherafat Kazemzadeh, R.; Jalali Farahani, S.; Azizi, F. Childhood Obesity in the Middle East: A Review. EMHJ-Eastern Mediterr. Heal. J. 2010, 16(9), 1009–1017. DOI: 10.26719/2010.16.9.1009.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Asokapandian, S.; Swamy, G. J.; Hajjul, H. Deep Fat Frying of Foods: A Critical Review on Process and Product Parameters. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2019, 1–14. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1688761.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaltout, E. Fat Replacers and Their Applications in Food Products: A Review. Alex. J. Fd. Sci. & Technol. 2007, 4(1), 29–44.
   Google Scholar
• Sandrou, D. K.; Arvanitoyannis, I. S. Low-Fat/calorie Foods: Current State and Perspectives. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2000, 40(5), 427–447. DOI: 10.1080/10408690091189211.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wylie-Rosett, J. Fat Substitutes and Health: An Advisory from the Nutrition Committee of the American Heart Association. Circulation. 105(23), 2800–2804. Jun 11, 2002. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000019402.35632.EB.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krauss, R. M., Eckel, R. H., Howard, B., Appel, L. J., Daniels, S. R., Deckelbaum, R. J., Erdman, J. W., Kris-Etherton, P., Goldberg, I. J., Kotchen, T. A., et al. AHA Dietary Guidelines Revision 2000: A Statement for Healthcare Professionals from the Nutrition Committee of the American Heart Association. Circulation 2000 , 102(18), 2284–2299. doi: 10.1161/01.CIR.102.18.2284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cengiz, E.; Gokoglu, N. Changes in Energy and Cholesterol Contents of Frankfurter-Type Sausages with Fat Reduction and Fat Replacer Addition. Food Chem. 2005, 91(3), 443–447. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.06.025.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cáceres, E.; García, M. L.; Toro, J.; Selgas, M. D. The Effect of Fructooligosaccharides on the Sensory Characteristics of Cooked Sausages. Meat Sci. 2004, 68(1), 87–96. DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2004.02.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duflot, P. Glucose Polymers as Sugar/fat Substitutes. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 1996, 6(7), 206.
   Google Scholar
• Chronakis, I. S. Structural-Functional and Water-Holding Studies of Biopolymers in Low Fat Content Spreads. LWT - Food Sci. Technol. 1997, 30(1), 36–44. DOI: 10.1006/fstl.1996.0126.
   Google Scholar
• Kavas, G.; Oysun, G.; Kinik, O.; Uysal, H. Effect of Some Fat Replacers on Chemical, Physical and Sensory Attributes of Low-Fat White Pickled Cheese. Food Chem. 2004, 88(3), 381–388. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2004.01.054.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koca, N.; Metin, M. Textural, Melting and Sensory Properties of Low-Fat Fresh Kashar Cheeses Produced by Using Fat Replacers. Int. Dairy J. 2004, 14(4), 365–373. DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2003.08.006.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’-Brien, C. M.; Mueller, A.; Scannell, A. G. M.; Arendt, E. K. Evaluation of the Effects of Fat Replacers on the Quality of Wheat Bread. J. Food Eng. 2003, 56(2–3), 265–267. DOI: 10.1016/S0260-8774(02)00266-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akalın, A. S.; Karagözlü, C.; Ünal, G. Rheological Properties of Reduced-Fat and Low-Fat Ice Cream Containing Whey Protein Isolate and Inulin. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2008, 227(3), 889–895. DOI: 10.1007/s00217-007-0800-z.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zalazar, C. A.; Zalazar, C. S.; Bernal, S.; Bertola, N.; Bevilacqua, A.; Zaritzky, N. Effect of Moisture Level and Fat Replacer on Physicochemical, Rheological and Sensory Properties of Low Fat Soft Cheeses. Int. Dairy. J. 2002, 12(1), 45–50. DOI: 10.1016/S0958-6946(01)00130-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu, S. Y.; Sun, L. Y. Comparisons on 10 Non-Meat Protein Fat Substitutes for Low-Fat Kung-Wans. J. Food Eng. 2006, 74(1), 47–53. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2005.02.022.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ognean, C. F.; Darie, N.; Ognean, M. Fat Replacers-Review, 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Verified market research. Global Fat Replacers Market Size by Source, by Type, by Form, by Application, by Geographic Scope and ForecastNo Title. 2021. https://www.verifiedmarketresearch.com/product/global-fat-replacers-market-size-and-forecast-to-2025/
   Google Scholar
• Owusu-Apenten, R. Introduction to Food Chemistry; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FA, USA, 2004.
   Google Scholar
• Shaltout, O. E.; Youssef, M. M.; Shaltout, E. Fat Replacers and Their Applications in Food Products: A Review, Alex. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2007, 4(1), 29–44.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers, R. W. Manufacturing of Reduced-Fat, Low-Fat, and Fat-Free Emulsion Sausage. In Meat Sci. Appl, 1st ed.; Robert, R.W.,Eds.; FA,USA: CRC Press, 2001, 443e462.
   Google Scholar
• Pyo, S.-H.; Chen, J.; Ye, R.; Hayes, D. G. Sugar Esters. Biobased Surfactants. 2019, 325–363. DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-812705-6.00010-1.
   Google Scholar
• Eldridge, A. L.; Cooper, D. A.; Peters, J. C. A Role for Olestra in Body Weight Management. Obes. Rev. 2002, 3(1), 17–25. DOI: 10.1046/j.1467-789X.2002.00050.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yazar, G.; Rosell, C. M. Fat Replacers in Baked Products: Their Impact on Rheological Properties and Final Product Quality. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2022. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2048353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow, C. K. Biological Effects of Oxidized Fatty Acids. In Fat. Acids Foods Heal. Implic, 2nd ed.; 2000; 687–709.
   Google Scholar
• Feng, T., Ye, R., Zhuang, H., Rong, Z., Fang, Z., Wang, Y., Gu, Z., Jin, Z., et al. Physicochemical Properties and Sensory Evaluation of Mesona Blumes Gum/rice Starch Mixed Gels as Fat-Substitutes in Chinese Cantonese-Style Sausage. Food. Res. Int. 2013 , 50(1), 85–93. doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2012.10.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pérez, B.; Anankanbil, S.; Guo, Z. Synthesis of Sugar Fatty Acid Esters and Their Industrial Utilizations. Sugar Fat. Acid Esters Their. Ind. Util. 2017, 329–354. DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-809521-8.00010-6.
   Google Scholar
• Watanabe, H., Onizawa, K., Taguchi, H., Kobori, M., Chiba, H., Naito, S., Matsuo, N., Yasukawa, T., Hattori, M., Shimasaki, H.; et al. Nutritional Characterization of Diacylglycerols in Rats. J. Japan Oil Chem. Soc. 1997, 46(3), 301–307.
   Google Scholar
• Kamphuis, M. M. J. W.; Mela, D. J.; Westerterp-Plantenga, M. S. Diacylglycerols Affect Substrate Oxidation and Appetite in Humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2003, 77(5), 1133–1139. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/77.5.1133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maki, K. C., Davidson, M. H., Tsushima, R., Matsuo, N., Tokimitsu, I., Umporowicz, D. M., Dicklin, M. R., Foster, G. S., Ingram, K. A., Anderson, B. D., et al. Consumption of Diacylglycerol Oil as Part of a Reduced-Energy Diet Enhances Loss of Body Weight and Fat in Comparison with Consumption of a Triacylglycerol Control Oil. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002 , 76(6), 1230–1236. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/76.6.1230.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kothekar, S. C.; Ware, A. M.; Waghmare, J. T.; Momin, S. A. Comparative Analysis of the Properties of Tween-20, Tween-60, Tween-80, Arlacel-60, and Arlacel-80. J Dispers. Sci. Technol. 2007, 28(3), 477–484. DOI: 10.1080/01932690601108045.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmadi, P.; Tabibiazar, M.; Roufegarinejad, L.; Babazadeh, A. Development of Behenic Acid-Ethyl Cellulose Oleogel Stabilized Pickering Emulsions as Low Calorie Fat Replacer. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020, 150, 974–981. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.10.205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voragen, A. G. J. Technological Aspects of Functional Food-Related Carbohydrates. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 1998, 9(8–9), 328–335. DOI: 10.1016/S0924-2244(98)00059-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yankah, V. V.; Akoh, C. C. Lipase-Catalyzed Acidolysis of Tristearin with Oleic or Caprylic Acids to Produce Structured Lipids. JAOCS, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2000, 77(5), 495–500. DOI: 10.1007/s11746-000-0079-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jadhav, H. B.; Annapure, U. Designer Lipids -Synthesis and Application – A Review. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 116, 884–902. Oct 01, 2021. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2021.08.020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson, S. T.; Vogel, J. L.; Barr, L. J.; Garvin, F.; Jones, J. J.; Costantini, L. C. Study of the Ketogenic Agent AC-1202 in Mild to Moderate Alzheimer’s Disease: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Multicenter Trial. Nutr. Metab. 2009, 6(1), 1–25. DOI: 10.1186/1743-7075-6-31.
   Google Scholar
• Zam, W. Structured Lipids: Methods of Production, Commercial Products and Nutraceutical Characteristics, 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Bechtel, D. H. Article Series: Safety of Esterified Propoxylated Glycerol (EPG), a Nonabsorbable Fat Replacer. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2014, 70(S2), S91–S94. DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.11.010.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Subroto, E.; Indiarto, R.; Djali, M.; Rosyida, H. D. Production and Application of Crosslinking- Modified Starch as Fat Replacer: A Review. Int. J. Eng. Trends Technol. 2021, 68(12), 26–30. DOI: 10.14445/22315381/IJETT-V68I12P205.
   Google Scholar
• Dunford, N. T. Chemistry of Rice Bran Oil. In Rice Bran and Rice Bran Oil: Chemistry, Processing and Utilization, Cheong, L. Z., Xu, X., Eds.; Elsevier: B.V. Amsterdam, 2019; pp 1–18.
   Google Scholar
• Gerde, J. A.; Hammond, E. G.; Johnson, L. A.; Su, C.; Wang, T., and White, P. J. Soybean Oil. In Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Shahidi, F. Eds.; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2020; pp 1–68.
   Google Scholar
• Eskin, M. N. A.; Aladedunye, F.; Unger, E. H.; Shah, S.; Chen, G.; Jones, P. J. Canola Oil. In Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products; Wiley, 2020; pp 1–63.
   Google Scholar
• Lin, L., et al. Evidence Health Benefits Canola Oil. 2013, doi:10.1111/nure.12033.
   Google Scholar
• Dunford, N. Canola Oil Properties. 2018. https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/canola-oil-properties.html
   Google Scholar
• Speranza, A.; Corradini, M. G.; Hartman, T. G.; Ribnicky, D.; Oren, A.; Rogers, M. A. Influence of Emulsifier Structure on Lipid Bioaccessibility in Oil-Water Nanoemulsions. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 2013, 61(26), 6505–6515. DOI: 10.1021/jf401548r.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osborn, H. T.; Akoh, C. C. Structured Lipids-Novel Fats with Medical, Nutraceutical, and Food Applications. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2002, 1(3), 110–120. DOI: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2002.tb00010.x.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Selani, M. M., et al. Pineapple By-Product and Canola Oil as Partial Fat Replacers in Low-Fat Beef Burger: Effects on Oxidative Stability, Cholesterol Content and Fatty Acid Profile. Meat Sci. 2016, 115, 9–15. DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.01.002.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheng, Y.; Chao, L. I.; Zhang, M.; Shi, B. Diacylglycerol-Enriched Oil from Hydrolysis of Soybean Oil with Rhizopus Oryzae Lipase Against High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity in Mice. Grain Oil Sci. Technol. 2018, 1(1), 53–58. DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1447.gost.2018.18026.
   Google Scholar
• Zambiazi, R. U. I. C.; Przybylski, R.; Zambiazi, M. W.; Mendonça, C. B. Fatty Acid Composition of Vegetable Oils and Fats. Bol. Do Cent. Pesqui. Process. Aliment. 2007, 25(1), 111–120.
   Google Scholar
• Youssef, M. K.; Barbut, S. Fat Reduction in Comminuted Meat Products-Effects of Beef Fat, Regular and Pre-Emulsified Canola Oil. Meat Sci. 2011, 87(4), 356–360. DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2010.11.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pelser, W. M.; Linssen, J. P. H.; Legger, A.; Houben, J. H. Lipid Oxidation in N - 3 Fatty Acid Enriched Dutch Style Fermented Sausages. Meat Sci. 2007, 75(1), 1–11. DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2006.06.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prabhavathi Devi, B. L. A.; Gangadhar, K. N.; Prasad, R. B. N.; Sugasini, D.; Rao, Y. P. C.; Lokesh, B. R. Nutritionally Enriched 1,3-Diacylglycerol-Rich Oil: Low Calorie Fat with Hypolipidemic Effects in Rats. Food Chem. 2018, 248, 210–216. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.12.066.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hidekatsu, Y.; Yoshiharu, T.; Kumie, I.; Nobuyuki, F.; Hiroshi, Y., and Norio, T. Diacylglycerol Oil for the Metabolic Syndrome. Nutr. J. 2007, 6, 43.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morita, O.; Soni, M. G. Safety Assessment of Diacylglycerol Oil as an Edible Oil: A Review of the Published Literature. Food Chem. Toxicol. 47(1), 9–21. Jan 1, 2009. Pergamon. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2008.09.044.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osaki, N., Meguro, S., Onizawa, K., Mizuno, T., Shimotoyodome, A., Hase, T., Tokimitsu, I., et al. Effects of a Single and Short-Term Ingestion of Diacylglycerol on Fat Oxidation in Rats. Lipids 2008 , 43(5), 409–417. doi: 10.1007/s11745-008-3155-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flickinger, B. D.; Matsuo, N. Nutritional Characteristics of DAG Oil. Lipids. 2003, 38(2), 129–132. DOI: 10.1007/s11745-003-1042-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• St-Onge, M. P.; Bourque, C.; Jones, P. J. H.; Ross, R.; Parsons, W. E. Medium- versus Long-Chain Triglycerides for 27 Days Increases Fat Oxidation and Energy Expenditure Without Resulting in Changes in Body Composition in Overweight Women. Int. J. Obes. 2003, 27(1), 95–102. DOI: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802169.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aoyama, T.; Nosaka, N.; Kasai, M. Research on the Nutritional Characteristics of Medium-Chain Fatty Acids. J. Med. Investig. 2007, 54(3–4), 385–388. DOI: 10.2152/jmi.54.385.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• St-Onge, M. P.; Bosarge, A. Weight-Loss Diet That Includes Consumption of Medium-Chain Triacylglycerol Oil Leads to a Greater Rate of Weight and Fat Mass Loss Than Does Olive Oil. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87(3), 621–626. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/87.3.621.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Longo, N.; Amat Di San Filippo, C.; Pasquali, M. Disorders of Carnitine Transport and the Carnitine Cycle. Am. J. Med. Genet. - Semin. Med. Genet. 2006, 142 C(2), 77–85. DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.c.30087.
   Google Scholar
• Augustin Bsc, K., Khabbush, A., Williams, S., Eaton, S., Orford, M., Cross, J. H., Heales, S. J. R., Walker, M. C., Williams, R. S. B., et al. Medium Chain Triglyceride Ketogenic Diet in Neurological and Metabolic Disorders. Neurology. 2018, 17(1), 84–93. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30408-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widlak, N. Physical Properties of Fats, Oils, and Emulsifiers; AOCS Press: Champaign, IL, USA, 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Moore, L. J. S.; Midgley, A. W.; Thurlow, S.; Thomas, G.; Mc Naughton, L. R. Effect of the Glycaemic Index of a Pre-Exercise Meal on Metabolism and Cycling Time Trial Performance. J. Sci. Med. Sport. 2010, 13(1), 182–188. DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2008.11.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeukendrup, A. E.; Thielen, J. J. H. C.; Wagenmakers, A. J. M.; Brouns, F.; Saris, W. H. M. Effect of Medium-Chain Triacylglycerol and Carbohydrate Ingestion During Exercise on Substrate Utilization and Subsequent Cycling Performance. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998, 67(3), 397–404. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/67.3.397.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeukendrup, A. E.; Saris, W. H. M.; Wagenmakers, A. J. M. Fat Metabolism During Exercise: A Review. Int. J. Sport. Med. 1998, 19(4), 231–244. DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-971911.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clegg, M. E. Medium-Chain Triglycerides are Advantageous in Promoting Weight Loss Although Not Beneficial to Exercise Performance. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2010, 61(7), 653–679. DOI: 10.3109/09637481003702114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasai, M., Nosaka, N., Maki, H., Negishi, S., Aoyama, T., Nakamura, M., Suzuki, Y., Tsuji, H., Uto, H., Okazaki, M.; et al. Effect of Dietary Medium- and Long-Chain Triacylglycerols (MLCT) on Accumulation of Body Fat in Healthy Humans. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 2003, 12(2), 151–160.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Wymelbeke, V.; Louis-Sylvestre, J.; Fantino, M. Substrate Oxidation and Control of Food Intake in Men After a Fat-Substitute Meal Compared with Meals Supplemented with an Isoenergetic Load of Carbohydrate, Long-Chain Triacylglycerols, or Medium-Chain Triacylglycerols. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2001, 74(5), 620–630. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/74.5.620.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Artz, W. E.; Lai, L. L., and Hansen, S. L. The Chemistry and Nutrition of Nonnutritive Fats. In Deep Frying: Chemistry, Nutrition, and Practical Applications: Second Edition, Erickson, M., Eds.; Elsevier Inc: Amsterdam, 2007; pp 229–249.
   Google Scholar
• Mroz, Z., et al. Chapter 4 Carboxylic Acids as Bioregulators and Gut Growth Promoters in Nonruminants. Biol. Grow. Anim. , 2006, 4(C), 81–133. DOI: 10.1016/S1877-1823(09)70091-8.
   Google Scholar
• Bergsson, G.; Arnfinnsson, J.; Karlsson, S. M.; Steingrímsson, Ó.; Thormar, H. In vitro Inactivation of Chlamydia Trachomatis by Fatty Acids and Monoglycerides. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1998, 42(9), 2290–2294. DOI: 10.1128/aac.42.9.2290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergsson, G.; Steingrímsson, Ó.; Thormar, H. Bactericidal Effects of Fatty Acids and Monoglycerides on Helicobacter Pylori. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents. 2002, 20(4), 258–262. DOI: 10.1016/S0924-8579(02)00205-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsiao, C. P.; Siebert, K. J. Modeling the Inhibitory Effects of Organic Acids on Bacteria. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 1999, 47(3), 189–201. DOI: 10.1016/S0168-1605(99)00012-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun, C. Q.; O’-Connor, C. J.; Roberton, A. M. The Antimicrobial Properties of Milkfat After Partial Hydrolysis by Calf Pregastric Lipase. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2002, 140(2), 185–198. DOI: 10.1016/S0009-2797(02)00016-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zentek, J.; Buchheit-Renko, S.; Ferrara, F.; Vahjen, W.; Van Kessel, A. G.; Pieper, R. Nutritional and Physiological Role of Medium-Chain Triglycerides and Medium-Chain Fatty Acids in Piglets. Anim. Health Res. Rev. 2011, 12(1), 83–93. DOI: 10.1017/S1466252311000089.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dierick, N. A.; Decuypere, J. A.; Molly, K.; Van Beek, E.; Vanderbeke, E. The Combined Use of Triacylglycerols (TAGs) Containing Medium Chain Fatty Acids (MCFAs) and Exogenous Lipolytic Enzymes as an Alternative to Nutritional Antibiotics in Piglet Nutrition. II. in vivo Release of Mcfas in Gastric Cannulated and Slaughtered Piglets by Endogenous and Exogenous Lipases; Effects on the Luminal Gut Flora and Growth Performances. Livest. Prod. Sci. 2002 , 76(1–2), 1–16. doi:10.1016/S0301-6226(01)00331-1.
   Google Scholar
• Mumme, K.; Stonehouse, W. Effects of Medium-Chain Triglycerides on Weight Loss and Body Composition: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2015, 115(2), 249–263. DOI: 10.1016/j.jand.2014.10.022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khanal, B. K. S., and Bansal, N. Dairy Fat Replacement in Low-Fat Cheese (LFC): A Review of Successful Technological Interventions. In Dairy Fat Products and Functionality, Khanal, B.K.S., Bansal, N., Eds.; Springer: Cham, 2020; pp 549–581.
   Google Scholar
• Sørensen, L. B., Cueto, H. T., Andersen, M. T., Bitz, C., Holst, J. J., Rehfeld, J. F., Astrup, A., et al. The Effect of Salatrim, a Low-Calorie Modified Triacylglycerol, on Appetite and Energy Intake. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008 , 87(5), 1163–1169. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/87.5.1163.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sørensen, L. B. Appetite and Energy Intake in Humans: Effect of Substitution of Food Ingredients and Foods, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Wardlaw, G. M., Snook, J. T., Park, S., Patel, P. K., Pendley, F. C., Lee, M. S., Jandacek, R. J., et al. Relative Effects on Serum Lipids and Apolipoproteins of a Caprenin-Rich Diet Compared with Diets Rich in Palm Oil/palm-Kernel Oil or Butter. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1995 , 61(3), 535–542. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/61.3.535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cater, N. B.; Denke, M. A. Behenic Acid is a Cholesterol-Raising Saturated Fatty Acid in Humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2001, 73(1), 41–44. DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/73.1.41.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roller, S., and Jones, S. Handbook of Fat Replacers; Boca Raton, FA, USA: CRC Press, 1996.
   Google Scholar
• Akoh, C. C. Fat-Based Fat Substitutes; 461–471; Acids Foods Heal. Implic, 3rd ed.; Chow, C.K., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FA, USA, 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Davidson, M. H.; Bechtel, D. H. Assessment of the Effect of Esterified Propoxylated Glycerol (EPG) on the Status of Fat-Soluble Vitamins and Select Water-Soluble Nutrients Following Dietary Administration to Humans for 8weeks. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2014, 70(S2), S143–S157. DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.11.009.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wedig, J.; Bechtel, D. H. 90-Day Dietary Toxicity Study with Esterified Propoxylated Glycerol (EPG) in Micropigs. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2014, 70(S2), S105–S113. DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.11.012.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Christian, B. J.; Bechtel, D. H. 90-Day Dietary Toxicity Study with Esterified Propoxylated Glycerol (EPG) in Rats. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2014, 70(S2), S95–S104. DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.11.017.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bechtel, D. H. Genotoxicity Testing of Esterified Propoxylated Glycerol (EPG). Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2014, 70(S2), S131–S142. DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.11.013.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Benigni, R. The Benigni/bossa Rulebase for Mutagenicity and Carcinogenicity–a Module of Toxtree. JRC Sci. Tech. Rep. 2008, 1, 63.
   Google Scholar
• Tyl, R. W.; Bechtel, D. H. Developmental Toxicity Evaluation of Esterified Propoxylated Glycerol (EPG) Administered in the Diet to New Zealand White Rabbits. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2014, 70(S2), S123–S130. DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.11.014.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Swithers, S. E.; Ogden, S. B.; Davidson, T. L. Fat Substitutes Promote Weight Gain in Rats Consuming High-Fat Diets. Behav. Neurosci. 2011, 125(4), 512–518. DOI: 10.1037/a0024404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kodama, S.; Matsumoto, S.; Wang, D.; Namihira, T.; Akiyama, H. Treatment of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Wastewater by Nano-Seconds Pulsed Discharge Plasma. Proceedings - 2015 IIAI 4th International Congress on Advanced Applied Informatics, IIAI-AAI 2015, Jan, 2016. pp 695–698. doi: 10.1109/IIAI-AAI.2015.215.
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization. PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPs) Children ’ S Health and the Environment. 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Daniel, H., Gholami, A. M., Berry, D., Desmarchelier, C., Hahne, H., Loh, G., Mondot, S., Lepage, P., Rothballer, M., Walker, A., et al. High-Fat Diet Alters Gut Microbiota Physiology in Mice. ISME J. 2014 , 8(2), 295–308. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2013.155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramirez-Farias, C.; Slezak, K.; Fuller, Z.; Duncan, A.; Holtrop, G.; Louis, P. Effect of Inulin on the Human Gut Microbiota: Stimulation of Bifidobacterium Adolescentis and Faecalibacterium Prausnitzii. Br. J. Nutr. 2020, 101, 541–550. DOI: 10.1017/S0007114508019880.
   Google Scholar
• Schlagheck, T. G.; Federle, T. W. Interactions Between Fat Substitutes and Gut Bacteria. Role Gut Bact. Hum. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 1995, 11, 142.
   Google Scholar
• Bimal, C.; Guonong, Z. Olestra: A Solution to Food Fat? Food Rev. Int. 2006, 22(3), 245–258. DOI: 10.1080/87559120600694705.
   Google Scholar
• Jandacek, R. J. Review of the Effects of Dilution of Dietary Energy with Olestra on Energy Intake. Physiol. Behav. 105(5), 1124–1131. Mar 20, 2012. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.12.018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moser, G. A.; McLachlan, M. S. A Non-Absorbable Dietary Fat Substitute Enhances Elimination of Persistent Lipophilic Contaminants in Humans. Chemosphere. 1999, 39(9), 1513–1521. DOI: 10.1016/S0045-6535(99)00219-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suarez, J.; Rock, C.; Hoh, E.; LaCroix, A.; Quintana, E. A Dietary Intervention with Nuts or Olestra to Enhance the Excretion of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Healthy Adults. Environ. Epidemiol. , 2019, 3, 386. DOI: 10.1097/01.ee9.0000610300.56349.5a.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, Y. M.; Kim, K. S.; Jacobs, D. R.; Lee, D. H. Persistent Organic Pollutants in Adipose Tissue Should Be Considered in Obesity Research. Obes. Rev. 2017, 18(2), 129–139. DOI: 10.1111/obr.12481.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, Y.; Zou, Y.; Que, F.; Zhang, H. Recent Advances in Fabrication of Edible Polymer Oleogels for Food Applications. Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 43, 114–119. Feb 01, 2022. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/j.cofs.2021.11.007.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martins, A. J.; Vicente, A. A.; Cunha, R. L.; Cerqueira, M. A. Edible Oleogels: An Opportunity for Fat Replacement in Foods. Food Funct. 9(2), 758–773. Feb 21, 2018. Royal Society of Chemistry. doi:10.1039/c7fo01641g.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manzoor, S.; Masoodi, F. A.; Naqash, F.; Rashid, R. Oleogels: Promising Alternatives to Solid Fats for Food Applications. Food Hydrocoll. Health. , 2022, 2, 100058. DOI: 10.1016/j.fhfh.2022.100058.
   Google Scholar
• Fameau, A. L.; Saint-Jalmes, A. Recent Advances in Understanding and Use of Oleofoams. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. , 2020, 4, 110. DOI: 10.3389/fsufs.2020.00110.
   Google Scholar
• Zhao, W.; Wei, Z.; Xue, C. Recent Advances on Food-Grade Oleogels: Fabrication, Application and Research Trends. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2021, 1–18. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1922354.
   Google Scholar
• Martins, A. J.; Vicente, A. A.; Pastrana, L. M.; Cerqueira, M. A. Oleogels for Development of Health-Promoting Food Products. Food Sci. Hum. Wellness. 9(1), 31–39. Mar 01, 2020. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/j.fshw.2019.12.001.
   Google Scholar
• Puscas, A.; Muresan, V.; Socaciu, C.; Muste, S. Oleogels in Food: A Review of Current and Potential Applications. Foods. 9(1), 70. Jan 8, 2020). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. doi:10.3390/foods9010070.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, M.; Yang, X. J. Effects of a High Fat Diet on Intestinal Microbiota and Gastrointestinal Diseases. World J. Gastroenterol. 22(40), 8905–8909. Oct 28, 2016. Baishideng Publishing Group Co., Limited. doi:10.3748/wjg.v22.i40.8905.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chung, C.; Smith, G.; Degner, B.; McClements, D. J. Reduced Fat Food Emulsions: Physicochemical, Sensory, and Biological Aspects. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2016, 56(4), 650–685. DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2013.792236.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knottnerus, S. J. G., et al. Exploring the Metabolic Fate of Medium-Chain Triglycerides in Healthy Individuals Using a Stable Isotope Tracer. Clin. Nutr. 2020. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2020.08.032.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salentinig, S.; Yepuri, N. R.; Hawley, A.; Boyd, B. J.; Gilbert, E.; Darwish, T. A. Selective Deuteration for Molecular Insights into the Digestion of Medium Chain Triglycerides. Chem. Phys. Lipids. 2015, 190, 43–50. DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2015.06.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, X., Zhang, Y., Liu, Y., Wang, J., Xu, Q., Yu, X., Yang, X., Liu, Z., Xue, C.; et al. Medium-Chain Triglycerides Promote Macrophage Reverse Cholesterol Transport and Improve Atherosclerosis in ApoE-Deficient Mice Fed a High-Fat Diet. Nutr. Res. 2016, 36(9), 964–973.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cao, Y.; Qi, S.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, X.; Yang, B.; Wang, Y. Synthesis of Structured Lipids by Lipase-Catalyzed Interesterification of Triacetin with Camellia Oil Methyl Esters and Preliminary Evaluation of Their Plasma Lipid-Lowering Effect in Mice. Molecules. 2013, 18(4), 3733–3744. DOI: 10.3390/molecules18043733.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai, O. M. Diacylglycerol Oils: Nutritional Aspects and Applications in Foods; Woodhead Publishing Limited: Sawston, United Kingdom, 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Lee, W. J.; Zhang, Z.; Lai, O. M.; Tan, C. P.; Wang, Y. Diacylglycerol in Food Industry: Synthesis Methods, Functionalities, Health Benefits, Potential Risks and Drawbacks. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2019, 97(September), 114–125. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.12.032.
   Google Scholar
• Feltes, M. M. C.; de Oliveira, D.; Block, J. M.; Ninow, J. L. The Production, Benefits, and Applications of Monoacylglycerols and Diacylglycerols of Nutritional Interest. Food Bioprocess. Technol. 6(1), 17–35. Apr 11, 2013. Springer. doi:10.1007/s11947-012-0836-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakajima, Y. Water-Retaining Ability of Diacylglycerol. JAOCS, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 2004, 81(10), 907–912. DOI: 10.1007/s11746-004-1000-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohno, Y. Deep-Frying Oil Properties of Diacylglycerol-Rich Cooking Oil. J. Oleo. Sci. 2002, 51(4), 275–279. DOI: 10.5650/jos.51.275.
   Google Scholar
• Baune, M. C., Schroeder, S., Witte, F., Heinz, V., Bindrich, U., Weiss, J., Terjung, N., et al. Analysis of Protein-Network Formation of Different Vegetable Proteins During Emulsification to Produce Solid Fat Substitutes. J. Food Meas. Charact. 2021 , 15(3), 2399–2416. doi: 10.1007/s11694-020-00767-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernández, C. L.; Romero, M. C.; Rolhaiser, F.; Fogar, R. A.; Doval, M. M. Fat Substitutes Based on Bovine Blood Plasma and Flaxseed Oil as Functional Ingredients. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 2021, 25, 100365. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100365.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Habulin, M.; Šabeder, S.; Knez, Ž. Enzymatic Synthesis of Sugar Fatty Acid Esters in Organic Solvent and in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide and Their Antimicrobial Activity. J. Supercrit. Fluids. 2008, 45(3), 338–345. DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2008.01.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wechter, W.; Schwartz, E.; Murray, E.; Gutierrez, I. Fat Substitutes. Google Patents, Aug 5, 2004.
   Google Scholar
• Puchalska, P.; Crawford, P. A. Multi-Dimensional Roles of Ketone Bodies in Fuel Metabolism, Signaling, and Therapeutics. Cell Metab. 25(2), 262–284. Feb 7, 2017. Cell Press. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2016.12.022.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, J.; Han, L.; Liu, Y.; Jin, Q.; Wang, X. Preparation Method of Low-Calorie Structural Lipid by Transesterification Using Immobilized Enzyme. Faming Zhuanli Shenqing. 2011, .
   Google Scholar
• Damak, S.; Godinot, N.; Le Coutre, J.; Martin, N.; Barcos, M. E. Low Caloric Fat Replacers. Google Patents, Mar 21, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Xiang, L. Nanoscale Fat Substitute, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Suprakas, R. S.; Emmabux, M. N.; Wokadala, O. Amylose-Lipid Complexes. US Patent App. 15/779,900, Oct 1, 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Balter, A.; Jianping, H.; Ilitzky-Gur, M.; Kastro, P.; Ben-Dror, G.; Herzog, Y. Method for Producing Human Milk Fat Substitute, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Bernard, G.; Carine, A. Animal Fat Substitute, 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Teresa, S. T. M.; Ana, S. A.; Susana, F. D. S.; Laura, L. C. Making and Fat Substitute Emulsion, 2014.
   Google Scholar
• Zhengji, L.; Xingchun, H.; Qiao, G. Pig Fat Substitute and Production Method Thereof, 2015.
   Google Scholar
• D, G. G.; W, R. J.; Bishop, W. Low Calorie Fat Substitute, 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Shanshan, D. Use Chrysalis Oil Preparing Synthetic Breast Milk Fat Substitute, 2018.
   Google Scholar