Racial Microaggressions and Depression in Black College Students: The Role of Ethnic Identity

References

• Adler, N. E., Epel, E. S., Castellazzo, G., & Ickovics, J. R. (2000). Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy white women. Health Psychology, 19(6), 586–592. doi:10.1037//0278-6133.19.6.586
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. California: Sage Publications, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Atari, R., & Han, S. (2018). Perceived discrimination, ethnic identity, and psychological well-being among Arab Americans. The Counseling Psychologist, 46(7), 899–921. doi:10.1177/0011000018809889
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, J. A., Stevens, C., Wong, S., & Liu, C. H. (2019). Psychiatric symptoms and diagnoses among U.S. college students: A comparison by race and ethnicity. Psychiatric Services, 70(6), 442–449. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201800388
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi, S., Lewis, J. A., Harwood, S., Mendenhall, R., & Huntt, M. B. (2017). Is ethnic identity a buffer? Exploring the relations between racial microaggressions and depression symptoms among Asian-American individuals. Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work: Innovation in Theory, Research & Practice, 26(12), 18–29. doi:10.1080/15313204.2016.1263815
   Google Scholar
• Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54(10), 805–816. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.805
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawford, J. R., & Henry, J. D. (2003). The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS): Normative data and latent structure in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 42(2), 111–131. doi:10.1348/014466503321903544
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cundiff, J. M., Smith, T. W., Uchino, B. N., & Berg, C. A. (2013). Subjective social status: Construct validity and associations with psychosocial vulnerability and self-rated health. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 20(1), 148–158. doi:10.1007/s12529-011-9206-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York, NY: Norton.
   Google Scholar
• Forrest-Bank, S. S., & Cuellar, M. J. (2018). The mediating effects of ethnic identity on the relationships between racial microaggression and psychological well-being. Social Work Research, 42(1), 44–56. doi:10.1093/swr/svx023
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional Process analysis, second edition: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Liao, K. Y.-H., Weng, C.-Y., & West, L. M. (2016). Social connectedness and intolerance of uncertainty as moderators between racial microaggressions and anxiety among Black individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(2), 240–246. doi:10.1037/cou0000123
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-u
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClain, S., Beasley, S. T., Jones, B., Awosogba, O., Jackson, S., & Cokley, K. (2016). An examination of the impact of racial and ethnic identity, impostor feelings, and minority status stress on the mental health of black college students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 44(2), 101–117. doi:10.1002/jmcd.12040
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mercer, S. H., Zeigler-Hill, V., Wallace, M., & Hayes, D. M. (2011). Development and initial validation of the inventory of microaggressions against black individuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58(4), 457–469. doi:10.1037/a0024937
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nadal, K. L., Griffin, K. E., Wong, Y., Hamit, S., & Rasmus, M. (2014). The impact of racial microaggressions on mental health: Counseling implications for clients of color. Journal of Counseling & Development, 92(1), 57–66. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2014.00130.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531–554. doi:10.1037/a0016059
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phinney, J. S. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2), 156–176. doi:10.1177/074355489272003
   Google Scholar
• Phinney, J. S., & Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271–281. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sellers, R. M., & Shelton, J. N. (2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(5), 1079–1092. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.5.1079
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. A., & Chavous, T. M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review: An Official Journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 2(1), 18–39. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_2
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Solorzano, D., Ceja, M., & Yosso, T. (2000). Critical race theory, racial microaggressions, and campus racial climate: The experiences of African American college students. Journal of Negro Education, 69(1/2), 60.
   Google Scholar
• Sue, D. W., Alsaidi, S., Awad, M. N., Glaeser, E., Calle, C. Z., & Mendez, N. (2019). Disarming racial microaggressions: Microintervention strategies for targets, White allies, and bystanders. American Psychologist, 74(1), 128–142. doi:10.1037/amp0000296
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sue, D. W., Nadal, K. L., Capodilupo, C. M., Lin, A. I., Torino, G. C., & Rivera, D. P. (2008). Racial microaggressions against Black Americans: Implications for counseling. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(3), 330–338. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00517.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torino, G. C., Rivera, D. P., Capodilupo, C. M., Nadal, K. L., & Sue, D. W. (2018). Microaggression Theory: Influence and Implications. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Torres, L., Driscoll, M., & Burrow, A. L. (2010). Racial microaggressions andpsychological functioning among highly achieving African-Americans: A mixed-methods approach. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 29(10), 1074–1099. doi:10.1521/jscp.2010.29.10.1074
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres-Harding, S., & Turner, T. (2015). Assessing racial microaggression distress in a diverse sample. Evaluation & the Health Professions, 38(4), 464–490. doi:10.1177/0163278714550860
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres-Harding, S. R., Andrade, A. L., Jr., & Romero Diaz, C. E. (2012). The Racial Microaggressions Scale (RMAS): A new scale to measure experiences of racial microaggressions in people of color. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(2), 153–164. doi:10.1037/a0027658
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weston, R., & Gore, P. A., Jr. (2006). A brief guide to structural equation modeling. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(5), 719–751. doi:10.1177/0011000006286345
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
•  
   Google Scholar
• Yip, T., Wang, Y., Mootoo, C., & Mirpuri, S. (2019). Moderating the association between discrimination and adjustment: A meta-analysis of ethnic/racial identity. Developmental Psychology, 55(6), 1274–1298. doi:10.1037/dev0000708
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar