34
Views
31
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
(RG) Obstetrics and Gynaecology

Is low-dose hormone replacement therapy for postmenopausal women efficacious and desirable?

&
Pages 110-119 | Published online: 03 Jul 2009

References

  • Ettinger B. Overview of estrogen replacement therapy: a historical perspective. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1998;217:2–5
  • Lobo RA, Bachmann GA, Ettinger B, Santoro NF, Shoupe D. Current clinical uses of low-dose estrogen therapy. Contemp OB/GYN 1998; Supp1:1–31
  • Mack TM, Pike MC, Henderson BE, et al. Estrogens and endometrial cancer in a retire-ment community. N Engl J Med 1976;294: 1262–7
  • Smith DC, Prentice R, Thompson DJ, Herrmann WL. Association of exogenous estro-gen and endometrial carcinoma. N Engl J Med 1975;293:1164–7
  • Ziel HK, Finkle WD. Increased risk of endo-metrial carcinoma among users of conjugated estrogens. N Engl J Med 1975;293:1167–70
  • Lindsay R, Hart DM, Clark DM. The minimum effective dose of estrogen for prevention of post-menopausal bone loss. Obstet Gynecol 1984; 63:759–63
  • Genant HK, Cann CE, Ettinger B, Gordan GS. Quantitative computed tomography of verte-bral spongiosa: a sensitive method for detecting early bone loss after oophorectomy. Ann Intern Med 1982;97:699–705
  • Speroff L, Rowan J, Symons J, Genant H, Wilborn W, for the CHART Study Group. The comparative effect on bone density, endo-metrium, and lipids of continuous hormones as replacement therapy (CHART Study). A randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc 1996;276:1397–403
  • Ettinger B, Genant HK, Cann CE. Postmeno-pausal bone loss is prevented by treatment with low-dosage estrogen with calcium. Ann Intern Med 1987;106:40–5
  • Genant HK, Lucas J, Weiss S, et al. Low-dose esterified estrogen therapy. Effects on bone, plasma estradiol concentrations, endometrium, and lipid levels. Arch Intern Med 1997;157: 2609–15
  • Ettinger B. Personal perspective on low-dosage estrogen therapy for postmenopausal women. Menopause 1999;6:273–6
  • American College of Obstetricians and Gyne-cologists Committee on Gynecologic Practice. Hormone replacement therapy. AGOG Educ Bull 1998;247:1–10
  • Lindsay R, Aitken JM, Anderson JB, Hart DM, MacDonald EB, Clarke AC. Long-term preven-tion of postmenopausal osteoporosis by oestro-gen: evidence for an increased bone mass after delayed onset of oestrogen treatment. Lancet 1976;1:1038–41
  • Lindsay R. The menopause: sex steroids and osteoporosis. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1987;30: 847–59
  • Cauley JA, Seeley DG, Ensrud K, et al. Estrogen replacement therapy and fractures in older women. Ann Intern Med 1995;122:9–16
  • Writing Group for the PEP Trial. Effects of hormone therapy on bone mineral density. Results from the Postmenopausal Estrogen/ Progestin Interventions (PEP!) Trial. J Am Med Assoc 1996;276:1389–96
  • Ettinger B, Genant HK, Cann CE. Long-term estrogen replacement therapy prevents bone loss and fractures. Ann Intern Med 1985;102: 319–24
  • Grodstein F, Stampfer M. The epidemiology of coronary heart disease and estrogen replace-ment in postmenopausal women. Prog Cardio-vasc Dis 1995;38:199–210
  • Grodstein F, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Stampfer MJ. A prospective, observational study of postmenopausal hor-mone therapy and primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Ann Intern Med 2000; 133:933–41
  • Grodstein F, Stampfer MJ, Manson J, et al. Postmenopausal estrogen and progestin use and the risk of cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996;335:453–61
  • Writing Group for the PEP Trial. Effects of estrogen or estrogen/progestin regimens on heart disease risk factors in postmenopausal women. The Postmenopausal Estrogen/ Progestin Interventions (PEP!) Trial. J Am Med Assoc 1995;273:199–208
  • Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T, et al. Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in post-menopausal women. J Am Med Assoc 1998; 280:605–13
  • Herrington DM, Reboussin DM, Brosnihan KB, et al. Effects of estrogen replacement on the progression of coronary-artery atherosclerosis. N Engl J Med 2000;343:522–9
  • Grodstein F, Newcomb PA, Stampfer MJ. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and the risk of colorectal cancer: a review and meta-analysis. Am J Med 1999;106:574–82
  • Nanda K, Bastian LA, Hasselblad V, Simel DL. Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 1999;93:880–8
  • Grodstein F, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, et al. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and mor-tality. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1769–75
  • Henderson BE, Paganini-Hill A, Ross RK. Decreased mortality in users of estrogen replacement therapy. Arch Intern Med 1991; 151:75–8
  • Sellers TA, Mink PJ, Cerhan JR, et al. The role of hormone replacement therapy in the risk for breast cancer and total mortality in women with a family history of breast cancer. Ann Intern Med 1997;127:973–80
  • Berman RS. Patient compliance of women taking estrogen replacement therapy. Drug Inf J 1997;31:71–83
  • Hammond CB. Women's concerns with hor-mone replacement therapy — compliance issues. Fertil Steril 1994;62\(Suppl 2):157S–60S
  • Ravnikar VA. Compliance with hormone therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;156: 1332–4
  • Mattsson L-A, Stadberg E, Milsom I. Manage-ment of hormone replacement therapy: the Swedish experience. Eur J Obstet Gynaecol Reprod Biol 1996;64\(Suppl 1):53–S5
  • Lawrence M, Jones L, Lancaster T, Daly E, Banks E. Hormone replacement therapy: patterns of use studied through British general practice computerized records. Fam Pract 1999;16:335–42
  • Moorhead T, Hannaford P, Warskyj M. Preva-lence and characteristics associated with use of hormone replacement therapy in Britain. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104:290–7
  • Rozenberg S, Vandromme J, Kroll M, Pastijn A, Liebens F. Compliance to hormone replacement therapy. Int J Fertil 199 5;40\(Suppl 1):23–32
  • Oddens BJ, Boulet MJ, Lehert P, Visser AP. Has the climacteric been medicalized? A study on the use of medication for climacteric complaints in four countries. Maturitas 1992;15:171–81
  • MacLennan AH, Wilson DH, Taylor AW. Hormone replacement therapies in women at risk of cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis in South Australia in 1997. Med J Aust 1999; 170:524–7
  • Hahn RG. Compliance considerations with estrogen replacement: withdrawal bleeding and other factors. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 161:1854–8
  • Utian WH, Schiff I. NAMS—Gallup survey on women's knowledge, information sources, and attitudes to menopause and hormone replace-ment therapy. Menopause 1994;1:39–48
  • Cooper C, Stakkestad JA, Radowicki S, et al. Matrix delivery transdermal 170-estradiol for the prevention of bone loss in postmenopausal women. Osteoporosis Int 1999;9:358–66
  • Evans SF, Davie MWJ. Low and conventional dose transdermal oestradiol are equally effec-tive at preventing bone loss in spine and femur at all post-menopausal ages. Clin Endocrinol 1996;44:79–84
  • Mizunuma H, Okano H, Soda M, et al. Preven-tion of postmenopausal bone loss with minimal uterine bleeding using low dose continuous estrogen/progestin therapy: a 2-year prospec-tive study. Maturitas 1997;27:69–76
  • Christiansen C, Christensen MS, McNair P, Hagen C, Stocklund KE, Transbol I. Prevention of early postmenopausal bone loss: controlled 2-year study in 315 normal females. Eur J Clin Invest 1980;10:273–9
  • Horsman A, Jones M, Francis R, Nordin C. The effect of estrogen dose on postmenopausal bone loss. N Engl J Med 1983;309:1405–7
  • Recker RR, Davies KM, Dowd RM, Heaney RP. The effect of low-dose continuous estrogen and progesterone therapy with calcium and vitamin D on bone in elderly women: a random-ized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130:897–904
  • Speroff L, Whitcomb RW, Kempfert NJ, Boyd RA, Paulissen JB, Rowan JP. Efficacy and local tolerance of a low-dose, 7-day matrix estradiol transdermal system in the treatment of meno-pausal vasomotor symptoms. 0 bstet Gynecol 1996;88:587–92
  • Cummings SR, Browner WS, Bauer D, et al. Endogenous hormones and the risk of hip and vertebral fractures among older women. N Engl J Med 1998;339:733–8
  • Ettinger B, Pressman A, Sklarin P, Bauer DC, Cauley JA, Cummings SR. Associations between low levels of serum estradiol, bone density, and fractures among elderly women: the study of osteoporotic fractures. J Clin Endo-crinol Metab 1998;83:2239–43
  • Utian WH, Shoupe D, Bachmann G, Pinkerton JV, Pickar JH. Relief of vasomotor symptoms and vaginal atrophy with lower doses of conjugated equine estrogens and medroxy-progesterone acetate. Fertil Steril 2001;75: in press
  • de Aloysio D, Rovati LC, Giamcovelli G, Setnikar I, Bottiglioni F. Efficacy on climacteric symptoms and safety of low dose estradiol transdermal matrix patches. A randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled study. Drug Res 2000;50:293–300
  • Schiff I. The effects of progestins on vasomotor flushes. J Reprod Med 1982;27(Suppl): 498–502
  • Semmens JP, Tsai CC, Semmens EC, Loadholt CB. Effects of estrogen therapy on vaginal physiology during menopause. Obstet Gynecol 1985;66:15–18
  • Nilsson K, Heimer G. Low-dose oestradiol in the treatment of urogenital oestrogen deficiency — a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study. Maturitas 1992;15:121–7
  • Nilsson KE, Heimer GM. Ultra-low-dose trans-dermal estrogen therapy in postmenopausal urogenital estrogen deficiency — a placebo-con-trolled study. Menopause 1994;1:191–7
  • Henriksson L, Stjernquist M, Boquist L, Cedergren I, Selinus I. A one-year multicenter study of efficacy and safety of a continuous, low-dose, estradiol-releasing vaginal ring (Estring) in postmenopausal women with symp-toms and signs of urogenital aging. Am J 0 bstet Gynecol 1996;174: 85–92
  • Notelovitz M. Urogenital atrophy and low-dose vaginal estrogen therapy. Menopause 2000; 7:140–2
  • Reginster JY, Sarlet N, Deroisy R, Albert A, Gaspard U, Franchimont P. Minimal levels of serum estradiol prevent postmenopausal bone loss. Calcif Tissue Int 1992;51:340–3
  • Roux C. Estrogen therapy in postmenopausal osteoporosis: what we know and what we don't. Rev Rbum Engl Ed 1997;64:402–9
  • Lafferty FW, Fiske ME. Postmenopausal estro-gen replacement: a long-term cohort study. Am J Med 1994;97:66–77
  • Schneider DL, Barrett-Connor EL, Morton DJ. Timing of postmenopausal estrogen for optimal bone mineral density. The Rancho Bernardo Study. J Am Med Assoc 1997;277:543–7
  • Grey AB, Cundy TF, Reid IR. Continuous com-bined oestrogen/progestin therapy is well toler-ated and increases bone density at the hip and spine in post-menopausal osteoporosis. Clin Endocrinol 1994;40:671–7
  • Harris ST, Genant HK, Baylink DJ, et al. The effects of estrone (Ogen) on spinal bone density of postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med 1991;151:1980–4
  • Gallagher JC, Kable WT, Goldgar D. Effect of progestin therapy on cortical and trabecular bone: comparison with estrogen. Am J Med 1991;90:171–8
  • Nieves JW, Komar L, Cosman F, Lindsay R. Calcium potentiates the effect of estrogen and calcitonin on bone mass: review and analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;67:18–24
  • Leung KY, Lee TK, Lee CN, Sum TK, Chan MYM, Tong CM. The effects of different dosages of estrogen on the bone mineral density of postmenopausal Hong Kong Chinese women: randomised controlled trial. Hong Kong Med J 1999;5:9–14
  • Field CS, Ory SJ, Wahner FIW, Herrmann RR, Judd HL, Riggs BL. Preventive effects of transdermal 170-estradiol on osteoporotic changes after surgical menopause: a two-year placebo-controlled trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993;168:114–21
  • American Heart Association. 2000 Heart and Stroke Statistical Update. Dallas, TX: American Heart Association, 1999:1–29
  • Kannel WB, Hjortland MC, McNamara PM, Gordon T. Menopause and risk of cardio-vascular disease. The Framingham Study. Ann Intern Med 1976;85:447–52
  • Kannel WB, Wilson PWF. Risk factors that attenuate the female coronary disease advan-tage. Arch Intern Med 1995;155:57–61
  • Grady D, Rubin SM, Petitti DB et al. Hormone therapy to prevent disease and prolong life in postmenopausal women. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:1016–37
  • Barrett-Connor E, Grady D. Hormone replace-ment therapy, heart disease, and other consider-ations. Annu Rev Public Health 1998;19:55–72
  • Mendelsohn ME, Karas RH. The protective effects of estrogen on the cardiovascular system. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1801–11
  • Selzman CH, Whitehill TA, Shames BD, Pulido EJ, Cain BC, Harken AH. The biology of estrogen-mediated repair of cardiovascular injury. Ann Thorac Surg 1998;65:868–74
  • Wolfe BM, Huff MW. Effects of continuous low-dose hormonal replacement therapy on lipoprotein metabolism in postmenopausal women. Metabolism 1995;44:410–17
  • Espeland MA, Marcovina SM, Miller V, et al. Effect of postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy on lipoprotein(a) concentration. Circu-lation 1998;97:979–86
  • Schlegel W, Petersdorf LI, Junker R, Schulte H, Ebert C, von Eckardstein A. The effects of six months of treatment with a low-dose of conju-gated oestrogens in menopausal women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1999;51:643–51
  • Lobo RA, Bush T, Carr BR, Pickar JH. Effects of lower doses of conjugated equine estrogens and medroxyprogesterone acetate on plasma lipids and lipoproteins, coagulation factors, and carbohydrate metabolism. Fertil Steril 2001;75: in press
  • Koh KK, Blum A, Schenke WH, et al. Effects of estrogen and vitamin E on nitric oxide bio-activity and markers of inflammation in post-menopausal women [Abstr]. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;33 (Suppl A):265A
  • Koh KK, Blum A, Hathaway L, et al. Vascular effects of estrogen and vitamin E therapies in postmenopausal women. Circulation 1999; 100:1851–7
  • Koh KK, Home MKI, Cannon ROI. Effects of hormone replacement therapy on coagulation, fibrinolysis, and thrombosis risk in postmeno- pausal women. Thromb Haemost 1999;82: 626–33
  • Shwaery GT, Vita JA, Keaney JF Jr. Antioxidant protection of LDL by physiologic concentra-tions of estrogens is specific for 17-beta-estradiol. Atherosclerosis 1998;138:255–62
  • Bush DE, Jones CE, Bass KM, Walters GK, Bruza JM, Ouyang P. Estrogen replacement reverses endothelial dysfunction in postmeno-pausal women. Am J Med 1998;104:552–8
  • Gerhard M, Walsh BW, Tawakol A, et al. Estradiol therapy combined with progesterone and endothelium-dependent vasodilation in postmenopausal women. Circulation 1998;98: 1158–63
  • Herrington DM, Werbel BL, Riley WA, Pusser BE, Morgan TM. Individual and combined effects of estrogen/progestin therapy and lova-statin on lipids and flow-mediated vasodilation in postmenopausal women with coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;33: 2030–7
  • Reis SE, Gloth ST, Blumenthal RS, et al. Ethinyl estradiol acutely attenuates abnormal coronary vasomotor responses to acetylcholine in post-menopausal women. Circulation 1994;89: 52–60
  • Roque M, Heras M, Roig E, et al. Short-term effects of transdermal estrogen therapy on coro-nary vascular reactivity in postmenopausal women with angina pectoris and normal results on coronary angiograms. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;31:139–43
  • Leonardo F, Pelliccia F, Mercuro G, et al. Effect of low and standard dose of estrogen replace-ment therapy upon endothelial function in menopausal women at risk of coronary events. [Abstr]. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;35(Suppl A): 247A
  • Crook D, Godsland IF, Hull J, Stevenson JC. Hormone replacement therapy with dydro-gesterone and 170-oestradiol: effects of serum lipoproteins and glucose tolerance during 24 month follow up. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104:298–304
  • Espeland MA, Hogan PE, Fineberg SE, et al. Effect of postmenopausal hormone therapy on glucose and insulin concentrations. Diabetes Care 1998;21:1589–95
  • Lasco A, Alvaro S, Frisina N, Di Benedetto A, Denuzzo G, Cucinotta D. Long-term trans-dermal estrogen therapy improves lipid profile but not insulin resistance in healthy postmeno-pausal women [Letter]. Diabetes Care 2000; 23:422–4
  • Sargeant LA, Wareham NJ, Khaw KT. Hormone replacement therapy and glucose tolerance in EPIC-Norfolk: a population-based study. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2000;16:20–5
  • Cucinelli F, Paparella P, Soranna L, et al. Differ-ential effect of transdermal estrogen plus progestagen replacement therapy on insulin metabolism in postmenopausal women: rela-tion to their insulinemic secretion. Eur J Endo-crinol 1999;140:215–23
  • Lindheim SR, Presser SC, Ditkoff EC, Vijod MA, Stanczyk FZ, Lobo RA. A possible bi-modal effect of estrogen on insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal women and the attenuating effect of added progestin. Fertil Steril 1993; 60:664–7
  • Phillips SM, Sherwin BB. Effects of estrogen on memory function in surgically menopausal women. Psycboneuroendocrino/ogy 1992;17: 485–95
  • Sherwin BB. Estrogenic effects on memory in women. Ann NY Acad Sci 1994;743:213–31
  • Thomas T, Rhodin JA, Sutton ET, Bryant MW, Price JM. Estrogen protects peripheral and cere-bral blood vessels from toxicity of Alzheimer peptide amyloid-beta and inflammatory reac-tion. J Submicrosc Cytol Pathol 1999;31:571–9
  • Thomas T, Rhodin J. Vascular actions of estro-gen and Alzheimer's disease. Ann NY Acad Sci 2000;903:501–9
  • Miranda RC, Sohrabji F, Toran-Allerand CD. Presumptive estrogen target neurons express mRNAs for both the neurotrophins and neuro-trophin receptors: a basis for potential develop-mental interactions of estrogen with the neurotrophins. Mol Cell Neurosci 1993;4: 510–25
  • Toran-Allerand CD, Singh M, SetilO G Jr. Novel mechanisms of estrogen action in the brain: new players in an old story. Front Neuro-endocrinol 1999;20:97–121
  • Genazzani AR, Spinetti A, Gallo R, Bernardi F. Menopause and the central nervous system: intervention options. Maturitas 1999;31: 103–10
  • Sherwin BB. Estrogen and cognitive functioning in women. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1998;217: 17–22
  • Kampen DL, Sherwin BB. Estrogen use and verbal memory in healthy postmenopausal women. Obstet Gynecol 1994;83:979–83
  • Lopez-Jaramillo P, Teran E. Improvement in functions of the central nervous system by estro-gen replacement therapy might be related with an increased nitric oxide production. Endothe-lium 1999;6:263–6
  • Trabal JF, Lenihan JP Jr, Melchione TE, et al. Low-dose unopposed estrogens: preliminary findings on the frequency and duration of vagi-nal bleeding in postmenopausal women receiv- ing esterified estrogens over a two-year period. Menopause 1997;4:130–8
  • MacLennan AH, MacLennan A, Wenzel S, Chambers HM, Eckert K. Continuous low-dose oestrogen and progestogen hormone replace-ment therapy: a randomised trial. Med J Aust 1993;159:102–6
  • Archer DF, Dorin M, Lewis V, Schneider DL, Pickar JH. Effects of lower doses of conjugated equine estrogens and medroxyprogesterone acetate on endometrial bleeding. Fertil Steril 2001;75:in press
  • Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormone replacement therapy: collaborative reanalysis of data from 51 epidemiological studies of 52 705 women with breast cancer and 108 411 women without breast cancer. Lancet 1997;350: 1047–59
  • Jacobs HS. Hormone replacement therapy and breast cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 2000;7: 53–61
  • Notelovitz M, Varner RE, Rebar RW, et al. Minimal endometrial proliferation over a two-year period in postmenopausal women taking 0.3 mg of unopposed esterified estrogens. Menopause 1997;4:80–8
  • Cushing KL, Weiss NS, Voigt LF, McKnight B, Beresford SA. Risk of endometrial cancer in relation to use of low-dose, unopposed estro-gens. Obstet Gynecol 1998;91:35–9.
  • Grady D, Gebretsadik T, Kerlikowske K, Ernster V, Petitti D. Hormone replacement therapy and endometrial cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol 1995;85:304–13
  • Weiderpass E, Baron JA, Adami HO, et al. Low-potency oestrogen and risk of endometrial cancer: a case—control study. Lancet 1999;353: 1824–8
  • Pickar JH, Yeh I-T, Wheeler JE, Cunnane MF, Speroff L. Endometrial effects of lower doses of conjugated equine estrogens and medroxypro-gesterone acetate. Fertil Steril 2001;75:in press
  • Perez Gutthann S, Garcia Rodriguez LA, Castellsague J, Duque Oliart A. Hormone re-placement therapy and risk of venous thrombo-embolism: population based case—control study. Br Med J 1997;314:796–800
  • Whitehead M, Godfree V. Venous thrombo-embolism and hormone replacement therapy. Baillière's Chin Obstet Gynaecol 1997;11: 587–99
  • Guetta V, Panza JA, Waclawiw MA, Cannon ROI. Effect of combined 170-estradiol and vitamin E on low-density lipoprotein oxidation in postmenopausal women. Am J Cardiol 1995; 75:1274–6

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.