Recent Developments in Modulation Spectroscopy for Trace Gas Detection Using Tunable Diode Lasers

References

• Rojas , D. , Ljung , P. and Axner , O. 1997 . An investigation of the 2f-wavelength modulation technique for detection of atoms under optically thin as well as thick conditions . Spectrochim. Acta Part B , 52 : 1663 – 1686 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wizemann , H.D. 1999 . Application of the 2f-wavelength modulation technique for the measurement of large lithium isotope ratios by diode laser graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy . Spectrochim. Acta Part B , 54 : 1267 – 1278 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernholz , T. , Teichert , H. and Ebert , V. 2002 . Digital, phase-sensitive detection for in situ diode-laser spectroscopy under rapidly changing transmission conditions . Applied Physics B , 75 : 229 – 236 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Disselkamp , R.S. , Kelly , J.F. , Sams , R.L. and Anderson , G.A. 2002 . Signal-to-noise enhancement techniques for quantum cascade absorption spectrometers employing optimal filtering and other approaches . Eur. Phys. J. D , 19 : 327 – 331 .
   Google Scholar
• Cameron , D.G. and Moffatt , D.J. 1987 . A generalized approach to derivative spectroscopy . Appl. Spectrosc. , 41 : 539 – 544 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silver , J.A. 1992 . Frequency-modulation spectroscopy for trace species detection: theory and comparison among experimental methods . Appl. Opt. , 31 ( 6 ) : 707 – 717 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manz , A.W. 1994 . A review of the applications of tunable diode laser spectroscopy at high sensitivity . Microchem. J. , 50 : 351 – 364 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manz , A.W. 1995 . A review of spectroscopic applications of tunable semiconductor lasers . Spectrochim. Acta Part A , 51 : 2211 – 2236 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werle , P. 1996 . Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy: recent findings and novel approaches . Infrared Physics and Technology , 37 : 59 – 66 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kluczynski , P. , Gustafsson , J. , Lindberg , A.M. and Axener , O. 2001 . Wavelength modulation absorption spectrometry-an extensive scrutiny of the generation of signals . Spectrochim. Acta Part B , 56 : 1277 – 1354 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Supplee , J.M. , Wittaker , E.A. and Lenth , W. 1994 . Theoretical description of frequency modulation and wavelength modulation spectroscopy . Appl. Opt. , 33 : 6294
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feher , M. and Martin , P.A. 1995 . Tunable diode laser monitoring of atmospheric trace gas constituents . Spectrochim. Acta Part A , 51 : 1579 – 1599 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jung , E.C. , Kim , T.-S. , Song , K. and Kim , C.-J. 2003 . Diode laser-excited optogalvanic and absorption measurements of uranium in a hollow cathode discharge . Spectrosc. Lett. , 36 : 167 – 180 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bjorklund , G.C. 1980 . Frequency-modulation spectroscopy: a new method for measuring weak absorptions and dispersions . Opt. Lett. , 5 ( 1 ) : 15 – 17 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werle , P. , Selmr , F. , Gehrtz , M. and Brauchle , Ch. 1989 . Wideband noise characteristics of a lead-salt diode laser: possibility of quantum noise limited TDLAS performance . Appl. Optics , 28 : 1638
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pavone , F.S. and Inguscio , M. 1993 . Frequency- and wavelength-modulation spectroscopies: comparison of experimental methods using an AlGaAs diode laser . Applied Physics B , 56 : 118 – 122 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werle , P. 1998 . A review of recent advances semiconductor laser based gas monitors . Spectrochim. Acta Part B , 54 : 197 – 236 .
   Google Scholar
• Cooper , D.E. and Gallagher , T.F. 1985 . Double frequency modulation spectroscopy: high modulation frequency with low-bandwidth detectors . Appl. Opt. , 24 : 1327 – 1334 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avestisov , V.G. and Lauranen , P.K. 1996 . Two-tone frequency-modulation spectroscopy for quantitative measurement of gaseous species: theoretical, numerical, and experimental investigation of line shapes . Appl. Opt. , 35 : 4705 – 4723 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennings , D.E. 1980 . Absolute line strengths in ν4, 12CH4: a dual-beam diode laser spectrometer with seep integration . Appl. Opt. , 19 : 2695 – 2700 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassidy , D.T. and Reid , J. 1982 . High-sensitivity detection of trace gases using sweep integration and tunable diode lasers . J. Appl. Opt. , 21 : 2527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grisar , R. , Riedel , W.J. and Ball , D.R. 1987 . Monitoring Gaseous Pollutants by Tunable Diode Lasers Edited by: Grisar , R. , Preier , H. , Schmidtke , G. and Restelli , G. 153 D. Reidel, D.Ordrecht .
   Google Scholar
• Worsnop , D.R. , Nelson , D.D. and Zahniser , M.S. 1992 . SPIE , 1715 : 18
   Google Scholar
• Hall , R.N. , Fenner , G.E. , Kingsley , J.D. , Soltys , T.J. and Carlson , R.O. 1962 . Coherent light emission from GaAs junctions . Phys. Rev. Lett. , 9 : 366 – 368 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kroemer , H. 1963 . A proposed class of hetero-junction injection lasers . Proc. IEEE , 51 : 1782 – 1783 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayashi , I. and Panish , M.B. 1970 . GaAs–GaxAl1−xAs heterostructure injection lasers which exhibit low thresholds at room temperature . J. Appl. Phys. , 41 : 150 – 1634 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alferov , Z.I. , Andreev , V.M. , Garbuzov , D.Z. , Zhilyaev , E.P. , Morozov , E.P. , Portnoi , E.L. and Trofim , V.G. 1970 . Investigation of the influence of the AlAs-GaAs heterostructure parameters on the laser threshold current and the realization of continuous emission at room temperature . Fiz. Tekh. Poluprovodn , 4 : 1826 [Sov. Phys. Semicond. 1971, 4, 1573]
   Google Scholar
• Hayashi , I. , Panish , M.B. , Foy , P.W. and Sumuski , S. 1970 . Junction lasers which operate continuously at room temperature . Appl. Phys. Lett. , 17 : 109 – 111 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agrawal , G.P. and Dutta , N.K. 1986 . “ Introduciton ” . In Long-Wavelength Semiconductor Lasers New York : Van Nostrand Reinhold Company . Chapt. 1–22
   Google Scholar
• Higgins , T.V. 1995 . The smaller, cheaper, faster world of the laser diode . Laser Focus World , 31 ( 4 ) : 65 – 76 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lerner , E.J. 1998 . Diode lasers light up disks, communications, and printers . Laser Focus World , 34 ( 1 ) : 123 – 132 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agrawal , G.P. and Dutta , N.K. 1986 . “ Laser structures and their performance ” . In Long-Wavelength Semiconductor Lasers 172 – 219 . New York : Van Nostrand Reinhold Company .
   Google Scholar
• Dixon , R.W. , Nash , F.R. , Hartman , R.L. and Hepplewhite , R.T. 1976 . Improved light-output linearity in stripe-geometry double-heterostructure (Al,Ga)As lasers . Appl. Phys. Lett. , 29 : 372 – 374 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson , R.J. and Dutta , N.K. 1980 . Self-sustained pulsations and negative-resistance behavior in InGaAsP (λ = 1.3 μm) double-heterostructure lasers . Appl. Phys. Lett. , 37 : 769 – 771 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heriott , D.R. , Kogelnik , H. and Kompfner , R. 1964 . Off-axis paths in spherical mirror interferometers . Appl. Opt. , 3 : 523 – 526 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heriott , D.R. and Schulte , H.J. 1965 . Folded optical delay lines . Appl. Opt. , 4 : 883 – 889 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webster , C.R. 1985 . Brewer-plate spoiler: a novel method for reducing the amplitude of interference fringes that limit tunable-laser absorption sensitivities . J. Opt. Soc. Am. B , 2 : 1464 – 1470 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silver , J.A. and Stanton , A.C. 1988 . Optical interference fringe reduction in laser absorption experiments . Appl. Opt. , 27 : 1914 – 1916 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agrawal , G.P. and Dutta , N.K. 1986 . “ Basic concepts ” . In Long-Wavelength Semiconductor Lasers New York : Van Nostrand Reinhold Company . Chapter 2 (see Fig. 2.1)
   Google Scholar
• Wieman , C.E. and Hollberg , L. 1991 . Using diode lasers for atomic physics . Rev. Sci. Instrum. , 62 ( 1 ) : 1 – 20 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura , M. , Aiki , K. , Chinone , N. , Ito , R. and Umeda , J. 1978 . Longitudinal-mode behaviors of mode-stabilized AlxGa1 − x as injection lasers . J. Appl. Phys. , 49 : 4644 – 4648 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klimcak , C.M. and Camparo , J.C. 1988 . Photothermal wavelength modulation of a diode laser . J. Opt. Soc. Am. B , 5 : 211 – 214 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kogelnik , H. and Shank , C.V. 1971 . Stimulated emission in a periodic structure . Appl. Phys. Lett. , 18 : 152 – 154 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scifres , D.R. , Burnham , R.D. and Streifer , W. 1974 . Distributed-feedback single 1–x heterojunction GaAs diode laser . Appl. Phys. Lett. , 25 : 203 – 206 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura , M. , Aiki , K. , Umeda , J. , Yariv , A. , Yen , H.W. and Morikawa , T. 1974 . GaAs-Ga1− x Alx As double-heterostructure distributed-feedback diode lasers . Appl. Phys. Lett. , 25 : 487 – 488 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reinhart , G.F. , Logan , R.A. and Shank , C.V. 1975 . GaAs-AlxGa1 − xAs injection lasers with distributed bragg reflectors . Appl. Phys. Lett. , 27 : 45 – 48 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kapon , E. and Katzir , A. 1985 . Distributed bragg-reflector Pb1 − xSnxTe/PbSeyTe1 − y diode lasers . IEEE J. Quantum Electron , 21 : 1947 – 1957 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Littman , M. and Metcalf , H. 1978 . Spectrally narrow pulsed dye laser without beam expander . Appl. Opt. , 17 : 2224 – 2227 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu , K. and Littman , M. 1981 . Novel geometry for single-mode scanning of tunable lasers . Opt. Lett. , 6 : 117 – 118 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harvey , K.C. and Myatt , C.J. 1991 . External-cavity diode laser using a grazing-incidence diffraction grating . Opt. Lett. , 16 : 910 – 912 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• http://www.newfocus.com/
   Google Scholar
• http://www.toptica.de/
   Google Scholar
• http://www.sacher.de/
   Google Scholar
• Tacke , M. 1995 . New developments and applications of tunable IR lead salt lasers . Infrared Phys. Technol. , 36 : 447 – 463 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fried , A. , Henry , B. , Wert , B. , Sewell , S. and Drummond , J.R. 1998 . Laboratory, ground-based, and airborne tunable diode laser systems: performance characteristics and application in atmospheric studies . Appl. Phys. B , 67 : 317 – 330 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werle , P. and Kormann , R. 2001 . Fast chemical sensor for eddy-correlation measurements of methane emissions from rice paddy fields . Appl. Opt. , 40 : 846 – 858 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weidmann , D. , Hamdouni , A. and Courtois , D. 2001 . CH4/air/SO2 premixed flame spectroscopy with a 7.5-μm diode laser . Appl. Phys. B , 73 : 85 – 91 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weidmann , D. and Coutois , D. 2003 . Infrared 7.6-μm lead–salt diode laser heterodyne radiometry of water vapor in a CH4-air premixed flat flame . Appl. Opt. , 42 : 1115 – 1121 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura , S.N. and Fasol , G. 1997 . “ Introduction ” . In The Blue Laser Diode 1 – 5 . New York : Springer .
   Google Scholar
• http://www.nichia.co.jp/
   Google Scholar
• Nakamura , S. 1998 . The roles of structural imperfections in InGaN-based blue light-emitting diodes and laser diodes . Science , 281 : 956 – 961 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakamura , S. and Kaenders , W. 1999 . Market-ready blue diodes excite spectroscopists . Laser Focus World , 35 ( 4 ) : 69 – 75 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corney , R.S. , Hewett , J.J. , Lancaster , G.P.T. , Sibbett , W. , Allen , J.W. and Dholakia , K. 2000 . Characterisation of an extended cavity violet diode laser . Opt. Commun. , 175 : 185 – 188 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leinen , H. , Glabner , D. , Metcalf , H. , Wynands , R. , Haubrich , D. and Meschede , D. 2000 . GaN blue diode lasers: a spectroscopist's view . Appl. Phys. B , 70 : 567 – 571 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayasaka , H. 2002 . Frequency stabilization of an extended-cavity violet diode laser by resonant optical feedback . Opt. Commun. , 206 : 401 – 409 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lonsdale , D.J. , Willis , A.P. and King , T.A. 2002 . Extended tuning and single-mode operation of an anti-reflection-coated InGaN violet laser diode in a littrow cavity . Meas. Sci. Technol , 13 : 488 – 493 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patil , D.S. and Gautam , D.K. 2002 . Computer analysis and optimization of physical and material parameters of the blue laser diode . Opt. Commun. , 201 : 413 – 423 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hildebrandt , L. , Knispel , R. , Stry , S. , Sacher , J.R. and Schael , F. 2003 . Antireflection-coated blue GaN laser diodes in an external cavity and doppler-free indium absorption spectroscopy . Appl. Opt. , 42 : 2110 – 2118 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim , J.I. , Park , C.Y. , Yeom , J.Y. , Kim , E.B. and Yoon , T.H. 2003 . Frequency-stabilized high-power violet laser diode with an ytterbium hollow-cathode lamp . Opt. Lett. , 28 : 245 – 247 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafsson , U. , Alnis , J. and Svanberg , S. 2000 . Atomic spectroscopy with violet laser diodes . Am. J. Phys. , 68 ( 7 ) : 660 – 664 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayasaka , K. , Urabe , S. and Watanabe , M. 2000 . Laser cooling of Ca+ with an external-cavity ultraviolet diode laser . Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. , 39 ( 7 ) : 687 – 689 .
   Google Scholar
• Toyoda , K. , Miura , A. , Urabe , S. , Hayasaka , K. and Watanabe , M. 2001 . Laser cooling of calcium ions by use of ultraviolet laser diodes: significant induction of electron-shelving transitions . Opt. Lett. , 26 : 1897 – 1899 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corner , L. , Gibb , J.S. , Hancock , G. , Hutchinson , A. , Kasyutich , V.L. , Peverall , R. and Ritchie , G.A.D. 2002 . Sum frequency generation at 309 nm using a violet and a near-IR DFB diode laser for detection of OH . Appl. Phys. B , 74 : 441 – 444 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanna , S.F. , Barron-Jimenez , R. , Anderson , T.N. , Lucht , R.P. , Caton , J.A. and Walther , T. 2002 . Diode-laser-based ultraviolet absorption sensor for nitric oxide . Appl. Phys. B , 75 : 113 – 117 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niemax , K. , Groll , H. and Schnurer-Patschan , C. 1993 . Element analysis by diode laser spectroscopy . Spectrochimica Acta Rev. , 15 : 349 – 377 .
   Google Scholar
• Werle , P. , Slemr , F. , Maurer , K. , Kormann , R. , Mucke , R. and Janker , B. 2002 . Opt. Laser in eng. near- and mid-infrared laser-optical sensors for gas analysis , 37 : 101 – 114 .
   Google Scholar
• Capasso , F. , Gmachl , C. , Paiella , R. , Tredicucci , A. , Hutchinson , A.L. , Sivco , D.L. , Baillargeon , J.N. , Cho , A.Y. and Liu , H.C. 2000 . New frontiers in quantum cascade lasers and applications . IEEE J. Quantum Electron. , 6 : 931 – 947 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faist , J. , Capasso , F. , Sivco , D.L. , Sirtori , C. , Hutchinson , A.L. and Cho , A.Y. 1994 . Quantum cascade laser . Science , 264 : 553 – 556 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dehlinger , G. , Diehl , L. , Gennser , U. , Sigg , H. , Faist , J. , Ensslin , K. , Grutzmacher , D. and Muller , E. 2000 . Intersubband electroluminescence from silicon-based quantum cascade structures . Science , 290 : 2277 – 2280 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faist , J. , Gmachl , C. , Capasso , F. , Sirtori , C. , Sivco , D.L. , Baillargeon , J.N. , Hutchinson , A.L. and Cho , A.Y. 1997 . Distributed feedback quantum cascade lasers . Appl. Phys. Lett. , 70 : 2670 – 2672 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Faist , J. , Tredicucci , A. , Capasso , F. , Sirtori , C. , Sivco , D.L. , Baillargeon , J.N. , Hutchinson , A.L. and Cho , A.Y. 1998 . High-power continuous-wave quantum cascade lasers . IEEE J. Quantum Electron. , 34 : 336 – 343 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosterev , A.A. and Tittel , F.K. 2002 . Chemical sensors based on quantum cascade lasers . IEEE J. Quantum Electron , 38 : 582 – 591 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Namjou , K. , Cai , S. , Whittaker , E.A. , Faist , J. , Gmachl , C. , Capasso , F. , Sivco , D.L. and Cho , A.Y. 1998 . Sensitive absorption spectroscopy with a room-temperature distributed-feedback quantum- cascade laser . Opt. Lett. , 23 : 219 – 221 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharpe , S.W. , Kelly , J.F. , Hartman , J.S. , Gmachl , C. , Capasso , F. , Sivco , D.L. , Baillargeon , J.N. and Cho , A.Y. 1998 . High-resolution (Doppler-limited) spectroscopy using quantum-cascade distributed-feedback lasers . Opt. Lett. , 23 : 1396 – 1398 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosterev , A.A. , Curl , R.F. , Tittel , F.K. , Gmachl , C. , Capasso , F. , Sivco , D.L. , Baillargeon , J.N. , Hutchinson , A.L. and Cho , A.Y. 1999 . Methane concentration and isotopic composition measurements with a mid-infrared quantum-cascade laser . Opt. Lett. , 24 : 1762 – 1764 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosterev , A.A. , Curl , R.F. , Tittel , F.K. , Gmachl , C. , Capasso , F. , Sivco , D.L. , Baillargeon , J.N. , Hutchinson , A.L. and Cho , A.Y. 2000 . Effective utilization of quantum-cascade distributed-feedback lasers in absorption spectroscopy . Appl. Opt. , 39 : 4425 – 4430 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beck , M. , Hofstetter , D. , Aellen , T. , Faist , J. , Oesterle , U. , Ilegems , M. , Gini , E. and Melchior , H. 2002 . Continuous wave operation of a mid-infrared semiconductor laser at room temperature . Science , 295 : 301 – 305 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnurer-Patschan , Ch. , Zybin , A. , Groll , H. and Niemax , K. 1993 . Improvement in detection limits in graphite furnace diode laser atomic absorption spectrometry by wavelength modulation technique . J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom. , 8 : 1103 – 1107 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groll , H. , Schnurer-Patschan , Ch. , Kuritsyn , Yu. and Niemax , K. 1994 . Multielement diode laser atomic spectrometry in graphite tube furnace and analytical flames . Spectrochim. Acta , 49B : 1463 – 1472 .
   Google Scholar
• Schnurer-Patschan , Ch. and Niemax , K. 1995 . Element selective detection of chlorine in capillary gas chromatography by wavelength modulation diode laser atomic absorption spectrometry in a microwave induced plasma . Spectrochimica Acta Part B , 50 : 963 – 969 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Groll , H. , Schaldach , G. , Berndt , H. and Niemax , K. 1995 . Measurement of Cr(III)/Cr(VI) species by wavelength modulation diode laser flame atomic absorption spectrometry . Spectrochim. Acta Part B , 50 : 1293 – 1298 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zybin , A. , Schnurer-Patschan , Ch. and Niemax , K. 1995 . Wavelength modulation diode laser atomic absorption spectrometry in modulated low-pressure helium plasma for element-selective detection in gas chromatography . J. Anal. Atom. Spectrom. , 10 : 563
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wizemann , H.D. 2000 . Analytical application of 2f-wavelength modulation for isotope selective diode laser graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy . Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. , 366 : 152 – 155 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wizemann , H.D. and Niemax , K. 2000 . Measurement of 7Li/6Li isotope ratio by resonant doppler-free two-photon diode laser atomic absorption spectrosocpy in a low-pressure graphite furnace . Spectrochim. Acta Part B , 55 : 637 – 650 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uehara , K. 1998 . Dependence of harmonic signals on sample-gas parameters in wavelength-modulation spectroscopy for precise absorption measurements . Applied Physics B , 67 : 517 – 523 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaux , R. and Lavorel , B. 2001 . Relative line intensity measurement in absorption spectra using a tunable diode laser at 1.6 mm: application to the determination of 13CO2/12CO2 isotope ratio . Applied Physics B , 72 : 237 – 240 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gagliardi , G. , Tamassia , F. , De Natale , P. , Gmachl , G. , Capasso , F. , Sivco , D.L. , Baillargeon , J.N. , Hutchinson , A.L. and Cho , A.Y. 2002 . Sensitive detection of methane and nitrous oxide isotopomers using a continuous wave quantum cascade laser . European Physics Journal D , 19 : 327 – 331 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reid , J. , El-Sherbiny , M. , Garside , B.K. and Ballik , E.A. 1980 . Sensitivity limits of a tunable diode laser spectrometer, with application to the detection of NO2 at the 100-ppt level . Appl. Opt. , 19 : 3349
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cassidy , D.T. and Reid . 1982 . Atmospheric pressure monitoring of trace gases using tunable diode lasers . J. Appl. Opt. , 21 : 1185 – 1190 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dharamsi , A.N. and Bullock , A.M. 1996 . Application of wavelength- modulation spectroscopy in resolution of pressure and modulation broadened spectra . Appl. Phys. B , 63 : 283 – 292 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gianfrani , L. , Gagliardi , G. , Pesce , G. and Sasso , A. 1997 . High-sensitivity detection of NO2 using a 740 nm semiconductor diode laser . Appl. Phys. B , 64 : 487 – 491 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gianfrani , L. , Sasso , A. and Tino , G.M. 1997 . Monitoring of O2 and NO2 using tunable diode lasers in the near-infrared region . Sensors and Actuators B , 38–39 : 283 – 285 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabrysch , M. , Corsi , C. , Pavone , F.S. and Inguscio , M. 1997 . Simultaneous detection of CO and CO2 using a semiconducotr DFB diode laser at 1.578 mm . Appl. Phys. B , 65 : 57 – 79 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sandstrom , L. , Backstrom , S. , Ahlberg , H. , Hoejer , S. and Larsson , A.G. 1998 . Gas monitoring using semiconductor lasers operating in the 2 mm wavelength region . Infrared Physics & Technology , 39 : 69 – 75 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uhl , R. , Reinhardt , T. , Haas , U. and Franzke , J. 1999 . Gas leak detection by diode laser absorption spectrometry . Spectrochim. Acta Part B , 54 : 1737 – 1741 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henningsen , J. and Simonsen , H. 2000 . Quantitative wavelength-modulation spectroscopy without certified gas mixtures . Appl. Phys. B , 70 : 627 – 633 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafsson , J. , Chekalin , N. and Axner , O. 2003 . Characterization of 2f-, 4f, and 6f- background signals in wavelength modulation diode laser absorption spectrometry in graphite furnaces . Spectrochim. Acta Part B , 58 : 123 – 141 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafsson , J. and Axner , O. 2003 . Intelligent triggering methodology for improved detectability of wavelength modulation diode laser absorption spectrometry applied to window-equipped graphite furnaces . Spectrochim. Acta Part B , 58 : 143 – 152 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafsson , J. , Chekalin , N. and Axner , O. 2003 . Improved detectability of wavelength modulation diode laser absorption spectrometry applied to window-equipped graphite furnaces by 4th and 6th harmonic detection . Spectrochim. Acta Part B , 58 : 111 – 122 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafsson , J. , Chekalin , N. , Rojas , D. and Axner , O. 2000 . Extensition of the dynamic range of the wavelength-modulated diode laser absorption technique . Spectrochim. Acta Part B , 55 : 237 – 262 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafsson , J. and Axner , O. 1998 . The influence of hyperfine structure and isotope shift on the detection of Rb by 2f-wavelength modulation diode laser absorption spectrometry-experimental verification of simulations . Spectrochim. Acta Part B , 53 : 1895 – 1905 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ljung , P. and Axner , O. 1997 . Measurements of rubidium in standard reference samples by wavelength-modulation diode laser absorption spectrometry in a graphite furnace. Spectrochim . Acta Part B , 52 : 305 – 319 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hancock , G. , Kasyutich , V.L. and Ritchie , G.A.D. 2002 . Wavelength- modulation spectroscopy using a frequency-doubled current-modulated diode laser . Appl. Phys. B , 74 : 569 – 575 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sonnenfroh , D.M. , Rawlins , W.T. , Allen , M.G. , Gmachl , C. , Capasso , F. , Hutchinson , A.L. , Sivco , D.L. , Baillargeon , J.N. and Cho , A.Y. 2001 . Appl. Opt. , 40 : 812 – 820 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosterev , A.A. , Tittel , F.K. , Gmachl , C. , Capasso , F. , Sivco , D.L. , Baillargeon , J.N. , Hutchinson , A.L. and Cho , A.Y. 2000 . Appl. Opt. , 36 : 6866 – 6872 .
   Google Scholar
• Shafer , S. , Mashni , M. , Sneider , J. , Miklos , A. , Hess , P. , Pitz , H. , Pleban , K.-U. and Ebert , V. 1998 . Sensitive detection of methane with a 1.65 μm diode laser by photoacoustic and absorption spectroscopy . Appl. Phys. B , 66 : 511 – 516 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song , K. , Cha , H. , Kapitanov , V.A. , Ponomarev , Yu.N. , Rostov , A.P. , Courtois , D. , Parvitte , B. and Zeninari , V. 2002 . Differential helmholtz resonant photoacoustic cell for spectroscopy and gas analysis with room-temperature diode lasers . Appl. Phys. B , 75 : 215 – 227 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alnis , J. , Gustafsson , U. , Somesfalean , G. and Svanberg , S. 2000 . Sum- frequency generation with a blue diode laser for mercury spectroscopy at 254 nm . Appl. Phys. Lett. , 76 : 1234 – 1236 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gustafsson , U. , Somesfalean , G. , Alnis , J. and Svanberg , S. 2000 . Frequency-modulation spectroscopy with blue diode lasers . Appl. Opt. , 39 : 3774 – 3780 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang , W. , Hammond , R.H. , Fejer , M.M. , Ahn , C.H. , Beasley , M.R. , Levenson and Bortz , L. 1995 . Diode-laser-based atomic absorption monitor using frequency-modulation spectroscopy for physical vapor deposition process control . J. Chem. Phys. Applied Phys. Lett. , 67 : 1375 – 1377 .
   Google Scholar
• Bomse , D.S. , Stanton , A.C. and Silver , J.A. 1992 . Frequency modulation and wavelength modulation sopectroscopies: comparison of experimental methods using a lead-salt diode laser . Appl. Opt. , 31 : 718 – 731 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werle , P. , Mucke , R. and Slemer , F. 1993 . The limits of signal averaging in atmospheric trace-gas monitoring by tunable diode-laser absorption spectroscopy (TDFLAS) . Applied Optics B , 57 : 131 – 139 .
   Google Scholar
• Chang , B.C. and Sears , T.J. 1996 . Transient frequency-modulation absorption spectroscopy of free radicals in supersonic free jet expansions . Chem. Phys. Lett. , 256 : 288 – 292 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Silveira , J.P. and Grasdepot , F. 1996 . New signal processing for wavelength modulation spectroscopy: application to an industrial methane sensor . Infrared Physics and Technology , 37 : 143 – 147 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gulluk , T. , Wagner , H.E. and Slemr , F. 1997 . A high-frequency modulated tunable diode laser absorption spectrometer for measures of CO2, CH4, N2O, and CO in air samples of a few cm3 . Rev. Sci. Instrum. , 68 : 230
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werle , P. , Mucke , R. , Amato , F.D. and Lancia , T. 1998 . Near-infrared trace-gas sensors based on room-temperature diode lasers . Appl. Phys. B , 67 : 307 – 315 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubinsky , I. , Rybak , K. , Steinfeld , J.I. and Field , R.W. 1998 . Frequency-modulation-enhanced remote sensing . Appl. Phys. B , 67 : 481 – 492 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Votsmeier , M. , Song , S. , Davidson , D.F. and Hanson , R.K. 1999 . Sensitive detection of NH2 in shock tube experiments using frequency modulation spectroscopy . Int. J. Chem. Kinet. , 31 : 445 – 453 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirata , H. , Ueda , M. , Ono , M. and Shimoyama , Y. 2002 . 1.1-GHz continuous-wave EPR spectroscopy with a frequency modulation method . J. of Magnetic Resonance , 155 : 140 – 144 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avetisov , V.G. and Kauranen , P. 1997 . High-resolution absorption measurements by use of two-tone frequency-modulation spectroscopy with diode lasers . Applied Optics , 36 : 4043 – 4054 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Modugno , G. , Corsi , C. , Gabrysch , M. , Martin , F. and Inguscio , M. 1998 . Fundamental noise sources in a high-sensitivity two-tone frequency modulation spectrometer and detection of CO2 at 1.6 μm and 2 μm . Appl. Phys. B , 67 : 289 – 296 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wenz , H. , Demtroeder , W. and Flaud , J.M. 2001 . Highly sensitive absorption spectroscopy of the ozone molecule around 1.5 μm . J. of Mol. Spectrosc. , 209 : 267 – 277 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amato , F.D. and Rosa , M.D. 2002 . Tunable diode lasers and two-tone frequency modulation spectroscopy applied to atmospheric gas analysis . Optics and Lasers in Engineering , 37 : 533 – 551 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar