458
Views
138
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

A survey of ionospheric effects on space-based radar

, &
Pages S189-S273 | Received 23 Jul 2003, Published online: 19 Aug 2006

References

  • Aarons , J . 1982 . Global morphology of ionospheric scintillation . Proc. IEEE , 70 : 360 – 79 .
  • Aarons , J . 1995 . 50 years of radio scintillation observations . September 5–7 1995 , London. Int. Conf. on 100 Years of Radio , pp. 95 – 100 .
  • Afraimovich , E L , Terekhov , A I , Udodov , M Yu and Fridman , S V . 1992 . Refraction distortions of transionospheric radio signals caused by changes in a regular ionosphere and by traveling ionospheric disturbances . J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. , 54 : 1013 – 20 .
  • Allnutt , J E . 1989 . Satellite-to-Ground Radiowave Propagation: Theory, Practice, and System Impact at Frequencies Above 1 GHz , London : Peter Peregrinus .
  • Anderson , S J . 1991 . Ionospheric Faraday rotation signatures in the space-time-frequency domain . 1991 . 5th Int. Conf. on HF Radio Systems and Techniques , pp. 167 – 72 .
  • Andrews , L C and Miller , W B . 1995 . The mutual coherence function and the backscatter amplification effect for a reflected Gaussian-beam wave in atmospheric turbulence . Waves Random Media , 5 : 167 – 82 .
  • Arendt , P R and Soicher , H . 1964 . Effects of Arctic nuclear explosions on satellite radio communication . Proc. IEEE , 52 : 672 – 4 .
  • Ashmanets , V I , Vodyannikov , V V and Troitsky , B V . 1996 . Exact calculation of errors at transionospheric propagation . J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. , 58 : 1161 – 3 .
  • Bamler , R and Hartl , P . 1998 . Synthetic aperture radar interferometry . Inverse Problems , 14 : R1 – 54 .
  • Bandyopadhayay , T , Guha , A , DasGupta , A , Banerjee , P and Bose , A . 1997 . Degradation of navigational accuracy with Global Positioning System during periods of scintillation at equatorial latitudes . Electron. Lett. , 33 : 1010 – 1 .
  • Barabanenkov , Yu N , Kravtsov , Yu A , Ozrin , V D and Saichev , A I . 1991 . “ Enhanced backscattering ” . In Progress in Optics , Edited by: Wolf , E . vol 29 , 65 – 197 . Amsterdam : North-Holland .
  • Basu , S , MacKenzie , E and Basu , Su . 1988 . Ionospheric constraints on VHF/UHF communications links during solar maximum and minimum periods . Radio Sci. , 23 : 363 – 78 .
  • Basu , Su and Basu , S . 1976 . Correlated measurements of scintillations and in situ F-region irregularities from 0go-6 . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 3 : 681 – 4 .
  • Beach , T L and Kintner , P M . 2001 . Development and use of a GPS ionospheric scintillation monitor . IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. , 39 : 918 – 28 .
  • Besieris , I M . 1985 . Wave-kinetic method, phase-screen path integrals, and stochastic wave equations . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , A 2 : 2092 – 9 .
  • Bhattacharyya , A and Rostogi , R G . 1987 . Faraday polarization fluctuations of VHF geostationary satellite signals near the geomagnetic equator . J. Geophys. Res. , 92 : 8821 – 6 .
  • Bhattacharyya , A and Yeh , K C . 1988 . Intensity correlation function for waves of different frequencies propagating through a random medium . Radio Sci. , 23 : 791 – 808 .
  • Bilow , H J . 1984 . “ Propagation and scattering considerations for the 0.2–3.0 GHz frequency range for a space-based radar ” . In NRL Report 5434 , Washington, DC : Naval Research Laboratory .
  • Bogaturov , A N , Gurvich , A S , Myakinin , V A , Dainty , J C , Solomon , C J and Wooder , N J . 1993 . Use of double passage and spatial filtering in imaging through turbulence . Waves Random Media , 3 : 9 – 16 .
  • Bogusch , R L , Guigliano , F W , Knepp , D L and Michelet , A H . 1981 . Frequency selective propagation effects on spread-spectrum receiver tracking . Proc. IEEE , 69 : 787 – 96 .
  • Booker , H G . 1958 . The use of radio stars to study irregular refraction of radio waves in the ionosphere . Proc. IRE , 46 : 298 – 314 .
  • Booker , H G , Ferguson , J A and Vats , H O . 1985 . Comparison between the extended-medium and the phase-screen scintillation theories . J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. , 47 : 381 – 99 .
  • Briggs , B H and Parkin , I A . 1963 . On the variation of radio star and satellite scintillation with zenith angle . J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. , 25 : 339 – 65 .
  • Brock , B C . 1993 . “ Ionospheric effects on a wide-bandwidth, polarimetric, space-based, synthetic-aperture radar ” . In Report SAND92–1967 , Albuquerque, NM : Sandia National Laboratories .
  • Brown , W P . 1972 . Moment equations for waves propagated in random media . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , 62 : 45 – 54 .
  • Brown , W D . 1988 . “ Effects of Faraday rotation on space-based radar performance ” . In Report SAND 87–2957 , Albuquerque, NM : Sandia National Laboratories .
  • Brown , W D and Cable , G D . 1993 . The spatial variance of ionospherically-induced phase errors in SAR imagery . May 1993 , Alexandria, VA. Proc. 7th Int. Symp. on Ionospheric Effects , pp. 2/B/7/1 – 11 .
  • Budd , C . 1993 . Some numerical predictions of the attenuation and dispersion of short VHF and UHF pulses between ground level and 500 km altitude . IEE Colloquium on Antenna and Propagation Problems of Ultra-Wide-Band Radar , : 7/1 – 7/4 .
  • Budden , K G . 1961 . Radio Waves in the Ionosphere-the Mathematical Theory of the Reflection of Radio Waves from Stratified Ionized Layers , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Budden , K G . 1985 . The Propagation of Radio Waves , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Cantafio , L J . 1989 . Space-Based Radar Handbook , Edited by: Cantafio , L J . Norwood, MA : Artech House Publishers .
  • Carrara , W G , Goodman , R S and Majewski , R M . 1995 . Spotlight Synthetic Aperture Radar: Signal Processing Algorithms , Boston : Artech House Publishers .
  • Cheney , M . 2001a . Mathematical tutorial on synthetic aperture radar . SIAM Rev. , 43 : 301 – 12 .
  • Cheney , M . 2001b . “ Tomography problems arising in synthetic aperture radar ” . In Radon Transforms and Tomography , Edited by: Quinto , E T , Ehrenpreis , L , Faridani , A , Gonzalez , F and Grinberg , E . Providence, RI : American Mathematical Society .
  • Cheney , M . 2002 . “ Introduction to synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and SAR interferometry ” . In Wavelets, Splines, and Applications , Approximation Theory Edited by: Chui , C K , Schumaker , L L and Stöckler , J . vol 10 , 167 – 77 . Nashville, TN : Vanderbilt University Press .
  • Codona , J L , Creamer , D B , Flatté , S M , Frehlich , R G and Henyey , F S . 1985 . Average arrival time of wave pulses through continuous random media . Phys. Rev. Lett. , 55 : 9 – 12 .
  • Codona , J L , Creamer , D B , Flatté , S M , Frehlich , R G and Henyey , F S . 1986a . Moment-equation and path-integral techniques for wave propagation in random media . J. Math. Phys. , 27 : 171 – 7 .
  • Codona , J L , Creamer , D B , Flatté , S M , Frehlich , R G and Henyey , F S . 1986b . Two-frequency intensity cross-spectrum . Radio Sci. , 21 : 805 – 14 .
  • Codona , J L , Creamer , D B , Flatté , S M , Frehlich , R G and Henyey , F S . 1986c . Solution for the fourth moment of waves propagating in random media . Radio Sci. , 21 : 929 – 48 .
  • Cordaro , J T . 1987 . “ Range performance of a linear-FM synthetic-aperture radar ” . In SAND 87–1863 , Albuquerque, NM : Sandia National Laboratories .
  • Curlander , J C and McDonough , R N . 1991 . Synthetic Aperture Radar: Systems and Signal Processing , New York : Wiley .
  • Cutrona , L J . 1990 . “ Synthetic aperture radar ” . In Radar Handbook , 2nd edn , Edited by: Skolnik , M . New York : McGraw-Hill .
  • Dana , R A . 1995 . Effects of two-way decorrelation on radar detection in scintillation . IEEE Trans. Aerospace Electron. Syst. , 31 : 795 – 804 .
  • Dana , R A . 1997 . Effects of ionospheric scintillation on differential demodulation of GPS data . IEEE Trans. Aerospace Electron. Syst. , 33 : 893 – 902 .
  • Dana , R A and Knepp , D L . 1983 . The impact of strong scintillation on space based radar design, I. Coherent detection . IEEE Trans. Aerospace Electron. Syst. , 19 : 539 – 49 .
  • Dana , R A and Knepp , D L . 1986 . The impact of strong scintillation on space based radar design, II. Noncoherent detection . IEEE Trans. Aerospace Electron. Syst. , 22 : 34 – 46 .
  • Dana , R A and Wittwer , L A . 1991 . A general channel model for RF propagation through structured ionization . Radio Sci. , 26 : 1059 – 68 .
  • Dashen , R . 1979 . Path integrals for waves in random media . J. Math. Phys. , 20 : 894 – 920 .
  • Davies , K . 1965 . Ionospheric Radio Propagation , Gaithersburg, MD : National Bureau of Standards .
  • Davies , K . 1990 . Ionospheric Radio , London : Peter Peregrinus .
  • Davies , K and Smith , E K . 2002 . Ionospheric effects on satellite land mobile systems . IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag. , 44 ( 6 ) : 24 – 31 .
  • De Wolf , D A . 1971 . Electromagnetic reflection from an extended turbulent medium: cumulative forward-scatter single-backscatter approximation . IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. , 19 : 254 – 62 .
  • DiNapoli , F R and Deavenport , R L . 1979 . Numerical Methods of Underwater Acoustic Propagation (Springer Topics in Current Physics, Ocean Acoustics vol 8) , Edited by: DeSnato , J A . 79 – 185 . Berlin : Springer .
  • Doser , A B . 1998 . A new time/frequency technique for detecting chirped signals . November 1–4 1998 , Pacific Grove, CA. Conf. Record of the 32nd Asilomar Conf. on Signals, Systems and Computers , pp. 1650 – 4 .
  • Doser , A B and Dunham , M E . 1997 . Transionospheric signal detection with chirped wavelets . November 2–5 1997 , Pacific Grove, CA. Conf. Record of the 31st Asilomar Conf. on Signals, Systems and Computers , pp. 1499 – 503 .
  • Dvorak , S L and Dudley , D G . 1995 . Propagation of ultra-wide-band electromagnetic pulses through dispersive media . IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat. , 37 : 192 – 200 .
  • Eichel , P H , Ghiglia , D C and Jakowatz , C V . 1989 . Speckle processing method for synthetic aperture radar phase correction . Opt. Lett. , 14 : 1 – 3 .
  • Eide , E S . 2000 . “ Radar imaging of small objects closely below the Earth surface ” . In PhD Dissertation , Department of Telecommunications, Norwegian University of Science and Technology .
  • Elachi , C . 1988 . Spaceborne Radar Remote Sensing: Applications and Techniques , New York : IEEE .
  • Enert , P . Ionospheric dispersion effects on wideband signals . Radar 94: Colloque Radar Int. Conf. 1994 , Paris. pp. 512 – 7 .
  • Eng , R and Kim , Y S . Time-of-arrival measurement for transionospheric EMP . 1992 . MILCOM'92: Conf. Record on., 1992 IEEE Military Communications Conf., Communications-Fusing Command, Control and Intelligenc , pp. 1058 – 61 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Ewart , T E and Reynolds , S A . 1993 . “ Ocean acoustic propagation measurements and waves in random media ” . In Wave Propagation in Random Media (Scintillation) , Edited by: Tatarskii , V I , Ishimaru , A and Zavorotny , V U . 100 – 23 . Bellingham, WA : SPIE Optical Engineering Press .
  • Fante , R L . 1974 . Mutual coherence function and frequency spectrum of a laser beam propagating through atmospheric turbulence . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , 64 : 592 – 8 .
  • Fante , R L . 1975a . Electromagnetic beam propagation in turbulent media . Proc. IEEE , 63 : 1669 – 92 .
  • Fante , R L . 1975b . Some new results on propagation of electromagnetic waves in strongly turbulent media . IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. , 23 : 382 – 5 .
  • Fante , R L . 1980a . Electromagnetic beam propagation in turbulent media: an update . Proc. IEEE , 68 : 1424 – 43 .
  • Fante , R L . 1980b . Some physical insights into beam propagation in strong turbulence . Radio Sci. , 15 : 757 – 62 .
  • Fante , R L . 1981 . Two-position, two-frequency mutual-coherence function in turbulence . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , 71 : 1446 – 51 .
  • Fante , R L . 1985 . “ Wave propagation in random media: a systems approach ” . In Progress in Optics , Edited by: Wolf , E . vol 22 , 341 – 98 . New York : Elsevier .
  • Fante , R L . 1994 . Turbulence-induced distortion of synthetic aperture radar images . IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. , 32 : 958 – 61 .
  • Faraday , M . 1846 . On the magnetization of light and the illumination of magnetic lines of force . Trans. R. Soc. London , 136 : 1 – 62 .
  • Filinov , V S . 1995a . Monte Carlo simulation in the theory of wave propagation in random media: I. Modified and Feynman path integrals . Waves Random Media , 5 : 267 – 75 .
  • Filinov , V S . 1995b . Monte Carlo simulation in the theory of wave propagation in random media: II. Scintillation index, second and fourth moments . Waves Random Media , 5 : 277 – 87 .
  • Fitzgerald , T J . Ionospheric effects on synthetic aperture radar at VHF . May 1997 , Syracuse, NY. Proc. 1997 IEEE National Radar Conf. , pp. 237 – 9 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Flatté , S M . 1979 . Sound Transmission Through a Fluctuating Ocean , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Flatté , S M . 1983 . Wave propagation through random media: contribution from ocean acoustics . Proc. IEEE , 71 : 1267 – 94 .
  • Flatté S , M , Bernstein , D R and Dashen , R . 1983 . Intensity moments by path integral techniques for wave propagation through random media, with application to sound in the ocean . Phys. Fluids , 26 : 1701 – 13 .
  • Franke , S J , Liu , C H and Fang , D J . 1984 . Multifrequency study of ionospheric scintillation at Ascension Island . Radio Sci. , 19 : 695 – 706 .
  • Frankenthal , S , Whitman , A M and Beran , M J . 1984 . Two-scale solutions for intensity fluctuations in strong scattering . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , A 1 : 585 – 97 .
  • Freeman , A . 1992 . SAR calibration: an overview . IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. , 30 : 1107 – 21 .
  • Freeman , A and Saatchi , S . 1997 . The effects of Faraday rotation on backscatter signatures in SAR image data . Proc. SPIE , 3120 : 37 – 44 .
  • Fremouw , E J and Ishimaru , A . 1992a . Intensity scintillation index and mean apparent radar cross section on monostatic and bistatic paths . Radio Sci. , 27 : 539 – 43 .
  • Fremouw , E J and Ishimaru , A . 1992b . “ Enhanced radar cross sections due to multiple scattering in turbulence ” . In 1992 Digest of IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Int. Symp , 1707 Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Fremouw , E J , Leadabrand , R L , Livingston , R C , Cousins , M D , Rino , C L , Fair , B C and Long , R A . 1978 . Early results from the DNA Wideband Satellite experiment . Radio Sci. , 13 : 167 – 87 .
  • Fremouw , E J , Livingston , R C and Miller , D A . 1980 . On the statistics of scintillation signals . J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. , 42 : 717 – 31 .
  • Fremouw , E J and Secan , J A . 1988 . “ Study of potential ionospheric effects on space-based radars ADA219634 ” . Northwest Research Associates .
  • Fujisaki , K and Tateiba , M . Numerical analysis of distortion of chirp pulse waves propagated through turbulent media . August 18–21 1993 , Tokyo. IGARSS'93: Proc. Int. 1993 Symp. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Better Understanding of the Earth Environmen , pp. 255 – 7 .
  • Furutsu , K . 1988 . Intensity correlation functions of lightwaves in a turbulent medium: an exact version of the two-scale method . Appl. Opt. , 27 : 2127 – 44 .
  • Gail , W B . 1998 . Effect of Faraday rotation on polarimetric SAR . IEEE Trans. Aerospace Electron. Syst. , 34 : 301 – 7 .
  • Gens , R and van Genderen J , L . 1996 . Review article: SAR interferometry-issues, techniques, applications . Int. J. Remote Sens. , 17 : 1803 – 35 .
  • Gheorghisor , I , Dissanayake , A , Allnutt , J and Yaghmour , S . 2000 . “ Prediction of Faraday rotation impairments in C-band satellite links ” . In Proc. 2000 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Int. Symp , 554 – 7 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Goodman , J M and Aarons , J . 1990 . Ionospheric effects on modern electronic systems . Proc. IEEE , 78 : 512 – 28 .
  • Goriachkin , O V and Klovsky , D D . Some problems of realization of spaceborne SAR in P, UHF, VHF bands . IGARSS'99: Proc. IEEE 1999 Int. Symp. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing . 1999 . pp. 1271 – 3 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Gray , A L , Mattar , K E and Sofko , G . 2000 . Influence of ionospheric electron density fluctuations on satellite radar interferometry . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 27 : 1451 – 4 .
  • Gray , A L , Matter , K E , Vachon , P W , Bindschadler , R , Jezek , K C , Forster , R and Crawford , J P . InSAR results from the RADARSAT Antarctic mapping mission data: estimation of glacier motion using a simple registration procedure . Proc. IGARSS'98 . 1998 , Seattle, WA.
  • Griffiths , H D . Radar and sonar imaging-a tutorial introduction . December 12 1995 , London. IEE 1995 Colloquium on Recent Developments in Radar and Sonar Imaging Systems: What Next? , pp. 1/1 – 1/7 .
  • Gurvich , A S and Tatarskii , V I . 1975 . Coherence and intensity fluctuations of light in the turbulent atmosphere . Radio Sci. , 10 : 3 – 14 .
  • Hacker , T . 2000 . “ Performance analysis of a space-based GMTI radar system using separated spacecraft interferometry ” . In Master Thesis , The Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology .
  • Halpin , T F , Urkowitz , H and Maron , D E . Propagation compensation by waveform predistortion . 1990 , Piscataway, NJ. Record of the 1990 IEEE Int. Conf. on Radar , pp. 238 – 42 . IEEE .
  • Hanssen , R . 1998 . Assessment of the role of atmospheric heterogeneities in ERS tandem SAR interferometry . Report in Response to the Statement of Work for Data Quality Analysis in Support of the ERS Tandem Mission Exploitation of the ESA ,
  • Hong , S T and Ishimaru , A . 1976 . Two-frequency mutual coherence function, coherence bandwidth, and coherence time of millimeter and optical waves in rain, fog, and turbulence . Radio Sci. , 11 : 551 – 9 .
  • Hong , S T , Sreenivasiah , I and Ishimaru , A . 1977 . Plane wave pulse propagation through random media . IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. , 25 : 822 – 8 .
  • Huo , W-P . 2002 . “ Solution to the fourth-order moment of pulse propagation in random ionosphere and theoretical study on statistical characteristic of arrival time ” . In Master Thesis , Xinxiang : China Research Institute of Radiowave Propagation . (in Chinese)
  • Ishimaru , A . 1975 . Correlation functions of a wave in a random distribution of stationary and moving scatterings . Radio Sci. , 10 : 45 – 52 .
  • Ishimaru , A . 1978 . Wave Propagation and Scattering in Random Media , vols 1, 2 , New York : Academic .
  • Ishimaru , A . 1991a . Backscattering enhancement: from radar cross sections to electron and light localizations to rough surface scattering . IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag. , 33 ( 5 ) : 7 – 11 .
  • Ishimaru , A . 1991b . Wave propagation and scattering in random media and rough surfaces . Proc. IEEE , 79 : 1359 – 66 .
  • Ishimaru , A . 1997 . Wave Propagation and Scattering in Random Media , New York : IEEE .
  • Ishimaru , A . Statistical electromagnetic propagation and scattering in random media and rough surfaces . Proc. 2000 IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Int. Symp. 2000 . pp. 1634 – 5 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Ishimaru , A and Hong , S T . 1975 . Multiple scattering effects on coherence bandwidth and pulse distortion of a wave propagating in a random distribution of particles . Radio Sci. , 10 : 637 – 44 .
  • Ishimaru , A , Kuga , Y , Liu , J , Kim , Y and Freeman , T . 1999 . Ionospheric effects on synthetic aperture radar at 100 MHz to 2 GHz . Radio Sci. , 34 : 257 – 68 .
  • Jakowatz , C V , Eichel , P H and Ghiglia , D C . 1989 . “ Autofocus of SAR imagery degraded by ionospheric-induced phase errors ” . In Millimeter Wave and Synthetic Aperture Radar , (SPIE Proc. vol 1101) 46 – 52 . Bellingham, WA : SPIE Optical Engineering Press .
  • Jenu M Z , M and Bebbington D H , O . 1994 . Fourth-moment calculation of optical propagation in a turbulent atmosphere with use of the split-step method: I. Plane wave . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , A 11 : 2862 – 8 .
  • Jiang , C and Wang , B . 2001 . Atmospheric refraction corrections of radiowave propagation for airborne and satellite-borne radars . Sci. China , E 44 : 280 – 90 .
  • Joughin , I , Gray , A L , Bindschadler , R , Price , S , Morse , D , Hulbe , C , Matter , K and Werner , C . 1999 . Tributaries of West Antarctic ice streams revealed by RADARSAT interferometry . Science , 286 : 283 – 6 .
  • Joughin , I , Winebrenner , D , Fahanstock , M , Kwok , R and Krabill , W . 1996 . Measurement of ice-sheet topography using satellite radar interferometry . J. Glac. , 42 : 10 – 22 .
  • Keskinen , M J and Ossakow , S J . 1981 . On the spatial power spectrum of the gradient drift instability in ionospheric plasma clouds . J. Geophys. Res. , 86 : 6987
  • Kim , Y and van Zyl , J . Ionospheric effects on polarimetric and interferometric space-based radar . IGARSS’98: Proc. 1998 IEEE Int. Symp. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing . July 1998 , Seattle, WA. pp. 472 – 4 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Kim , Y S and Eng , R . 1995 . Time-of-arrival prediction model for transionospheric EMP . IEEE Trans. Aerospace Electron. Syst. , 31 : 409 – 13 .
  • King , M A and Fleming , P B . 1980 . An overview of the effects of nuclear weapons on communications capabilities . Signal , : 59 – 66 . January
  • Klauder , J R , Price , A C , Darlington , S and Albersheim , W J . 1960 . The theory and design of chirp radars . Bell Syst. Tech. J. , 39 : 745 – 808 .
  • Klees , R . 1999 . “ SAR interferometry technology ” . In Travaux, International Association of Geodesy , 89 – 110 . Birmingham : IAG Central Bureau .
  • Klobuchar , J A . 1978 . “ Ionospheric effects on satellite navigation and air traffic control systems ” . In Recent Advances in Radio Optical Propagation for Modern Communications, Navigation, and Detection Systems , (ADARD Lecture Series LS 93) Springfield, VA : National Technical Information Service .
  • Knepp , D L . 1983a . Analytic solution for the two-frequency mutual coherence function for spherical wave propagation . Radio Sci. , 18 : 535 – 49 .
  • Knepp , D L . 1983b . Multiple phase-screen calculation of the temporal behavior of stochastic waves . Proc. IEEE , 71 : 722 – 37 .
  • Knepp , D L . 1985 . Aperture antenna effects after propagation through strongly disturbed random media . IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. , 33 : 1074 – 84 .
  • Knepp , D L and Brown , W A . 1997 . Average received signal power after two-way propagation through ionized turbulence . Radio Sci. , 32 : 1575 – 96 .
  • Knepp , D L and Dana , R A . Impact of the propagation environment on space-based radar design . Proc. 20th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Mtg . 1982 , Orlando, FL. Jan . AIAA Paper AIAA-82–0424
  • Knepp , D L and Houpis H L , F . 1991 . ALTAIR VHF/UHF observations of multipath and backscatter enhancement . IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. , 39 : 528 – 34 .
  • Knepp , D L and Mokole , E L . 1992 . Space-based radar coherent processing during scintillation: VHF through L band . Radio Sci. , 27 : 47 – 61 .
  • Knepp , D L and Reinking , J T . 1989 . “ Ionospheric environment and effects on space-based radar detection ” . In Space-Based Radar Handbook , Edited by: Cantafio , L J . 83 – 117 . Norwood, MA : Artech House Publishers .
  • Knepp , D L and Valley , G C . 1978 . Properties of joint Gaussian statistics . Radio Sci. , 13 : 59 – 68 .
  • Knepp , D L and Wittwer , L A . 1978 . Simulation of wide bandwidth signals that have propagated through random media . Radio Sci. , 19 : 303 – 18 .
  • Kong , J A . 2000 . Electromagnetic Wave Theory , Cambridge, MA : EMW Publishing Company .
  • Kramer , K . 1994 . Observation of the Earth and its Environment, Survey of Missions and Sensors , 2nd edn , Berlin : Springer .
  • Kravtsov , Yu A . 1992 . Propagation of electromagnetic waves through a turbulent atmosphere . Rep. Prog. Phys. , 55 : 39 – 112 .
  • Kravtsov , Yu A . 1993 . New effects in wave propagation and scattering in random media (a mini review) . Appl. Opt. , 32 : 2681 – 91 .
  • Kravtsov , Yu A and Saichev , A I . 1982 . Effects of double passage of waves in randomly inhomogeneous media . Sov. Phys.-Usp. , 25 : 494 – 508 .
  • Kravtsov , Yu A and Saichev , A I . 1985 . Properties of coherent waves reflected in a turbulent medium . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , A 2 : 2100 – 5 .
  • Kretov , N V , Ryshkina , T E and Fedorova , L V . 1991 . On the dispersive distortions of wide-band signals in the ionospheric plasma . Radiotekh. Elektron. , 36 : 1 – 6 .
  • Kretov , N V , Ryshkina , T Y and Fedorova , L V . 1992a . Dispersive distortions of transionospheric broadband VHF signals . Radio Sci. , 27 : 491 – 5 .
  • Kretov , N V , Ryshkina , T Y and Fedorova , L V . 1992b . Effect of Earth's atmosphere on spatial resolution of space-based synthetic-aperture radars . Sov. J. Commun. Technol. Electron. , 37 : 34 – 9 .
  • Kuga , Y and Ishimaru , A . 1984 . Retroreflectance from a dense distribution of spherical particles . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , A 1 : 831 – 5 .
  • Lawrence , R S , Little , C G and Chivers , H J . 1964 . A survey of ionospheric effects upon Earth-space radio propagation . Proc. IEEE , 52 : 4 – 27 .
  • Lee , L C . 1974 . Wave propagation in a random medium: a complete set of the moment equations with different wave numbers . J. Math. Phys. , 15 : 1431 – 5 .
  • Lee , M C , DasGupta , A , Klobuchar , J A , Basu , S and Basu , Su . 1982 . Depolarization of VHF geostationary satellite signals near the equatorial anomaly crests . Radio Sci. , 17 : 399 – 409 .
  • Lee , M C , Nghiem , S V and Yoo , C . 1989 . Effects of irregularity anisotropy on Faraday polarization fluctuations . J. Geophys. Res. , 94 : 15421 – 4 .
  • Lee , S Y , Liu , C H and Yeh , K C . 1980 . “ Waves in random continuum described by path integrals ” . In Research Topics in Electromagnetic Wave Theory , Edited by: Kong , J A . New York : Wiley . chapter 1
  • Le Vine , D M and Abraham , S . 2002 . The effect of the ionosphere on remote sensing of sea surface salinity from space: absorption and emission at L band . IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. , 40 : 771 – 82 .
  • Le Vine , D M and Kao , M . Effects of Faraday rotation on microwave remote sensing from space at L-band . IGARSS'97: Proc. 1997 IEEE Int. Symp. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. Remote Sensing-a Scientific Vision for Sustainable Developmen . 1997 . pp. 377 – 9 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Liu , C H , Wernik , A W and Yeh , K C . 1974 . Propagation of pulse trains through a random medium . IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. , 22 : 152 – 5 .
  • Liu , C H and Yeh , K C . 1977 . Propagation of pulsed beam waves through turbulence, cloud, rain, or fog . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , 67 : 1261 – 6 .
  • Liu , C H and Yeh , K C . 1979 . Pulse spreading and wandering in random media . Radio Sci. , 14 : 925 – 31 .
  • Liu , C H and Yeh , K C . 1980 . Statistical of pulse arrival time in turbulent media . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , 70 : 168 – 72 .
  • Liu , C H and Yeh , K C . 1981 . “ Pulse distortion in a random medium ” . In Research Topics in Electromagnetic Wave Theory , Edited by: Kong , J A . New York : Wiley . chapter 1
  • Liu , J , Kuga , Y , Ishimaru , A and Freeman , T . Simulations of ionospheric effects on SAR at P-band . Proc. IGARSS'99: Proc. IEEE 1999 Int. Symp. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing . 1999 . pp. 1842 – 4 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Liu , J , Kuga , Y , Ishimaru , A , Pi , X and Freeman , A . 2003 . Ionospheric effects on SAR imaging: a numerical study . IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. , 41 : 939 – 47 .
  • Lord , R T and Inggs , M R . High range resolution radar using narrow-band linear chirps offset in frequency . Proc. 1997 IEEE South African Symp. on Communications and Signal Processing . 1997 , Grahamstown, South Africa. Sept . pp. 9 – 11 .
  • Lure , Y M , Yang , C C and Yeh , K C . 1989 . Enhanced backscattering phenomenon in a random medium . Radio Sci. , 24 : 147 – 59 .
  • Macaskill , C . 1983 . An improved solution to the fourth moment equation for intensity fluctuations . Proc. R. Soc. , A 386 : 461 – 74 .
  • Martin , J M and Flatté , S M . 1988 . Intensity images and statistics from numerical simulation of wave propagation in three-dimensional random media . Appl. Opt. , 27 : 2111 – 26 .
  • Massonnet , D and Feigl , K L . 1995 . Discrimination of geophysical phenomena in satellite radar interferograms . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 22 : 1537 – 40 .
  • Massonnet , D and Feigl , K L . 2001 . Radar interferometry and applications to changes in the Earth's surface . Rev. Geophys. , 36 : 441 – 500 .
  • Massonnet , D , Feigl , K L and Adragna , F . 1994 . Radar interferometric mapping of deformation in the year after the Landers earthquake . Nature , 369 : 227 – 30 .
  • Massonnet , D , Rossi , M , Caramona , C , Adragna , F , Peltzer , G , Fiegl , K and Rabaute , T . 1993 . The displacement field of the Landers earthquake mapped by radar interferometry . Nature , 364 : 138 – 42 .
  • Mazar , R and Bronshtein , A . 1991 . Double passage analysis in random media using two-scale random propagators . Waves Random Media , 1 : 341 – 62 .
  • Mazar , R , Gozani , J and Tur , M . 1985 . Two-scale solution for the intensity fluctuations of two-frequency wave propagation in a random medium . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , A 2 : 2152 – 60 .
  • McCandless , S W . 1989 . “ SAR in space-the theory, design engineering and application of a space-based SAR system ” . In Space-Based Radar Handbook , Edited by: Cantafio , L J . 121 – 66 . Norwood, MA : Artech House Publishers .
  • Miller , S J . 1987 . Frequency cross-spectrum of intensity fluctuations produced by a deep-phase screen . Proc. R. Soc. , A 410 : 229 – 48 .
  • Miller , S J and Uscinski , B J . 1986 . Frequency cross-correlation of intensity fluctuations limitations of multiple-scattering solutions . Opt. Acta , 33 : 1341 – 58 .
  • Mokole , E L . 1991 . “ Integration losses and clutter-Doppler spread for a space based radar caused by ionospheric scintillation during a solar maximum ” . In NRL Report 9343 , Naval Research Laboratory .
  • Mokole , E L and Knepp , D L . 1993 . Ionospheric scintillation-induced integration losses for space-based radar . IEEE Trans. Aerospace Electron. Syst. , 29 : 636 – 50 .
  • Mountcastle , P D and Martin , M D . Monte Carlo simulation of ionospheric scintillation . Proc. 2002 IEEE Conf. on Radar . 2002 . pp. 350 – 5 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Nakagami , M . 1960 . “ The m-distribution-a general formula of intensity distribution of rapid fading ” . In Statistical Methods in Radio Propagation , Edited by: Hoffman , W C . 3 – 36 . New York : Pergamon .
  • Olmsted , C . 1993 . Alaska SAR Facility Scientific SAR User's Guide , ASF-SD-003 July
  • Oz , J . 1997 . Modal theory for the two-frequency mutual coherence function in random media: point source . Waves Random Media , 7 : 107 – 17 .
  • Oz , J and Heyman , E . 1996 . Modal solution to the two-frequency mutual coherence function in random media . Radio Sci. , 31 : 1907 – 18 .
  • Oz , J and Heyman , E . 1997a . Modal theory for the two-frequency mutual coherence function in random media: general theory and plane wave solution: I . Waves Random Media , 7 : 79 – 93 .
  • Oz , J and Heyman , E . 1997b . Modal theory for the two-frequency mutual coherence function in random media: general theory and plane wave solution: II . Waves Random Media , 7 : 95 – 106 .
  • Oz , J and Heyman , E . 1998 . Modal theory for the two-frequency mutual coherence function in random media: beam waves . Waves Random Media , 8 : 159 – 74 .
  • Papoulis , A . 1965 . Probability, Random Variables, and Stochastic Processes , New York : McGraw-Hill .
  • Pi , X , Mannucci , A J , Lindqwister , U J and Ho , C M . 1997 . Monitoring of global ionospheric irregularities using the worldwide GPS network . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 24 : 2283 – 6 .
  • Porcello , L J . 1970 . Turbulence-induced phase errors in synthetic-aperture radars . IEEE Trans. Aerospace Electron. Syst. , 6 : 636 – 44 .
  • Price , E J and Sandwell , D T . 1998 . Small-scale deformations associated with the 1992 Landers, California, earthquake mapped by synthetic aperture radar interferometry phase gradients . J. Geophys. Res. , 103 : 27001 – 16 .
  • Prokhorov , A M , Bunkin , F V , Gochelashvily , K S and Shishov , V I . 1975 . Laser irradiance propagation in turbulent media . Proc. IEEE , 63 : 790 – 811 .
  • Quegan , S and Lamont , J . 1986 . Ionospheric and tropospheric effects on synthetic aperture radar performance . Int. J. Remote Sens. , 7 : 525 – 39 .
  • Ratcliffe , J A . 1959 . The Magnetoionic Theory and its Applications to the Ionosphere , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
  • Reinking , J T , Knepp , D L and Hausman , M A . 2001 . Polar region ionospheric effects on UHF radar track acquisition . Radio Sci. , 36 : 1157 – 66 .
  • Rignot , E . 2000 . Effect of Faraday rotation on L-band interferometric and polarimetric synthetic-aperture radar data . IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. , 38 : 383 – 90 .
  • Rignot E J , M , Zimmermann , R and van Zyl , J . 1995 . Spaceborne applications of P band imaging radars for measuring forest biomass . IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. , 33 : 1162 – 9 .
  • Rino , C L . 1982 . On the application of phase screen models to the interpretation of ionospheric scintillation data . Radio Sci. , 17 : 855 – 67 .
  • Rino , C L . 1994 . Double-passage radar cross section enhancements . Radio Sci. , 27 : 495 – 501 .
  • Rino , C L and Owen , J . 1981 . On the temporal coherence loss of strongly scintillating signals . Radio Sci. , 16 : 31 – 3 .
  • Rodriguez , E and Martin , J M . 1992 . Theory design of interferometric synthetic aperture radar . Proc. IEEE , 80 : 147 – 59 .
  • Rosen , P A , Hensley , S , Joughin , I R , Li , F K , Madsen , S , Rodriguez , E and Goldstein , R M . 2000 . Synthetic aperture radar interferometry . Proc. IEEE , 88 : 333 – 82 .
  • Rytov , S M , Kravtsov , Yu A and Tatarskii , V I . 1989 . “ Wave propagation through random media ” . In Introduction to Statistical Radiophysics , vol 4 , New York : Springer .
  • Samelsohn , G and Freilikher , V . 2002 . Two-frequency mutual coherence function and pulse propagation in random media . Phys. Rev. , E 65 : 046617
  • Shishov , V I . 1967 . Tr. FIAN , 38 : 171
  • Shishov , V I . 1968 . Theory of wave propagation in random media . Izv. Vyssh. Uchebn. Zaved. Radiofiz. , 11 : 866 – 75 .
  • Shishov , V I . 1973 . Frequency correlation of scintillations . Radiophys. Quantum Electron. , 16 : 319 – 27 .
  • Shishov , V I . 1974 . Effect of refraction on scintillation characteristics and average pulse shape of pulsars . Sov. Astron. , 17 : 598 – 602 .
  • Shteinshleiger , V B , Andrianov , V , Dzenkevich , A V , Manakov V , Yu , Melnikov , L and Misezhnikov , G S . On a high-resolution space-borne VHF-band SAR for FOPEN and GPEN remote sensing of the Earth . 1999 . The Record of the 1999 IEEE Conf. on Radar , pp. 209 – 12 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Shteinshleiger , V B , Dzenkevich , A V , Manakov , V Yu , Melnikov , C Ya and Misezhnikov , G S . 1997a . On a transionospheric synthetic-aperture radar for remote terrain sensing . J. Commun. Technol. Electron. , 42 : 668
  • Shteinshleiger , V B , Dzenkevich , A V , Manakov , V Yu , Melnikov , C Ya and Misezhnikov , G S . 1997b . On the resolution of spaceborne VHF-band SAR for remote sensing of Earth . Radiotekh. Elektron. , 42 : 725 – 32 .
  • Shteinshleiger , V B , Dzenkevich , A V , Manakov , V Yu , Melnikov , C Ya and Misezhnikov , G S . Two-dimensional adaptive compression for ionosphere destructive effect on resolution of VHF spaceborne SAR . Proc. EUSAR'98 . March 1998 , Friedrichashafen, Germany. pp. 157 – 61 .
  • Shteinshleiger , V B , Dzenkevich , A V , Manakov , V Yu and Misezhnikov , G S . Obtaining high resolution in transionospheric spaceborne VHF-band SAR for earth remote sensing . Proc. 1997 Edinburgh Int. Conf. on Radar . Oct 1997 , Edinburgh. pp. 268 – 72 .
  • Shteinshleiger , V B , Dzenkevich , A V , Manakov , V Yu and Misezhnikov , G S . 1998b . On overcoming the destructive effect of the ionosphere on the resolution of VHF transionospheric radar for remote sensing of the earth . Phys.-Usp. , 41 : 1249 – 51 .
  • Shteinshleiger , V B , Dzenkevich , A V , Misezhnikov , G S and Melnikov , L . On the possibility of designing a high-resolution spaceborne VHF-band SAR for remote sensing of the Earth . Proc. EUSAR 96: European Conf. on Synthetic Aperture Radar . March 1996 , Berlin. pp. 321 – 4 .
  • Skinner , N J , Kelleher , R F , Hacking , J B and Benson , C W . 1971 . Scintillation fading of signals in the SHF band . Nature (Phys. Sci.) , 232 ( 5 ) : 19 – 21 .
  • Snoeij , P , van der Valk , N , Boom , E and Hoekman , D . Effect of the ionosphere on P-band spaceborne SAR images . IGARSS'01: Proc. IEEE 2001 Int. Symp. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing . 2001 . pp. 132 – 4 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Spivack , M and Uscinski , B J . 1988 . Accurate numerical solution of the fourth-moment equation for very large values of Γ . J. Mod. Opt. , 35 : 1741 – 55 .
  • Spivack , M and Uscinski , B J . 1989 . The split step solution in random wave propagation . J. Comput. Appl. Math. , 27 : 349 – 61 .
  • Sreenivasiah , I and Ishimaru , A . 1979 . Beam wave two-frequency mutual coherence function and pulse propagation in random media: an analytic solution . Appl. Opt. , 18 : 1613 – 8 .
  • Sreenivasiah , I , Ishimaru , A and Hong , S T . 1976 . Two-frequency mutual coherence function and pulse propagation in a random medium: an analytic solution to the plane wave case . Radio Sci. , 11 : 775 – 8 .
  • Tarayre , H and Massonnet , D . Atmospheric artifacts on interferograms . Proc. ERS SAR Interferometry, Fringe 96 Workshop . Sep.-Oct 1996 , Zurich, Switzerland.
  • Tarayre , H and Massonnet , D . 1996b . Atmospheric propagation heterogeneities revealed by ERS-1 interferometry . Geophys. Res. Lett. , 23 : 989 – 92 .
  • Tatarskii , V I . 1971 . The Effects of the Turbulent Atmosphere on Wave Propagation , Springfield, VA : US Department of Commerce .
  • Tatarskii , V I , Ishimaru , A and Zavorotny , V U . 1993 . Wave Propagation in Random Media (Scintillation) , Edited by: Tatarskii , V I , Ishimaru , A and Zavorotny , V U . Bellingham, WA : SPIE Optical Engineering Press .
  • Tatarskii , V I and Zavorotny , V U . 1980 . “ Strong fluctuations in light propagation in a randomly inhomogeneous medium ” . In Progress in Optics , Edited by: Wolf , E . vol 18 , 204 – 56 . Amsterdam : North-Holland .
  • Taur , R R . 1976 . Simulations 1.5 and 4 GHz ionospheric scintillation measurements . Radio Sci. , 11 : 1029 – 36 .
  • Tjin , D E , Kelly , T S and Andrews , L C . 1999 . Temporal broadening and scintillations of ultrashort optical pulses . Waves Random Media , 9 : 307 – 25 .
  • Towle , D M . 1980 . VHF and UHF radar observations of equatorial F-region ionospheric irregularities and background densities . Radio Sci. , 15 : 71 – 86 .
  • Tsang , L and Ishimaru , A . 1984 . Backscattering enhancement of random discrete scatterers . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , A 1 : 836 – 9 .
  • Tsunoda , R T . 1988 . High-latitude F-region irregularities: a review and synthesis . Rev. Geophys. , 26 : 719 – 60 .
  • Tur , M . 1985 . Numerical solutions for the fourth moment of a finite beam propagating in a random medium . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , A 2 : 2161 – 70 .
  • Ulander L M , H , Frolind , P-O , Gustavsson , A , Hellsten , H , Herberthson , M , Jonsson , T , Larsson , B and Stenstrom , G . Trans-ionospheric distortion in satellite VHF-band SAR systems . IGARSS'2000: Proc. IEEE 2000 Int. Symp. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing . 2000 . pp. 1177 – 9 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Ulander , L M H and Hellsten , H . 1996 . A new formula for SAR spatial resolution . AEÜ Int. J. Electron. Commun. , 50 : 117 – 21 .
  • Uscinski , B J . 1977 . The Elements of Wave Propagation in the Atmosphere , New York : McGraw-Hill .
  • Uscinski , B J . 1982 . Intensity fluctuations in a multiple scattering medium. Solution of the fourth moment equation . Proc. R. Soc. , A 380 : 137 – 69 .
  • Uscinski , B J . 1985 . Analytical solution of the fourth-moment equation and interpretation as a set of phase screens . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , A 2 : 2077 – 91 .
  • Uscinski , B J . 1989 . Numerical simulations and moments of the field from a point source in a random medium . J. Mod. Opt. , 36 : 1631 – 43 .
  • Uscinski , B J and Macaskill , C . 1985 . Frequency cross-correlation of intensity fluctuations in multiple scattering . Opt. Acta , 32 : 71 – 89 .
  • Wahl , D E , Eichel , P H , Ghiglia , D C and Jakowatz , C V . 1994 . Phase gradient autofocus-a robust tool for high resolution SAR phase correction . IEEE Trans. Aerospace Electron. Syst. , 30 : 827 – 34 .
  • Walker , B , Sander , G , Thompson , M , Burns , B , Fellerhoff , R and Dubbert , D . A high-resolution, four-band SAR tested with real-time image formation . May 1996 , Lincoln, NE. IGARSS'96: Proc. IEEE 1996 Int. Symp. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing , pp. 1881 – 5 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Wandzura , S A . 1980 . Meaning of quadratic structure functions . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , 70 : 745 – 7 .
  • Wang , Z-S . 1987a . Optical wave propagation through inhomogeneous random medium-the solution of the m-nth moment equation of multiple scattering . Phys. Scr. , 35 : 318 – 22 .
  • Wang , Z-S . 1987b . Analytical solutions in differential form for the m-nth moment equations of waves in inhomogeneous random media . Phys. Scr. , 36 : 577 – 81 .
  • Wang , Z S and Bryant , D A . 1990 . Electromagnetic wave propagation in turbulent and nonlinear plasmas . J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. , 23 : 2879 – 96 .
  • Wheelon , A D . 2001 . Geometrical Optics , (Electromagnetic Scintillation vol 1) New York : Cambridge University Press .
  • Whitman , A M and Beran , M J . 1985 . Two-scale solution for atmospheric scintillation . J. Opt. Soc. Am. , A 5 : 2133 – 43 .
  • Whitney , H E , Malik , C and Aarons , J . 1969 . A proposed index for measuring ionospheric scintillation . Planet. Space Sci. , 17 : 1069 – 73 .
  • Wolcott , J H , Simons , D J , Eastman , T E and Fitzgerald , T J . 1978 . “ Characteristics of late-time striations observed during operation DTRESS ” . In Effect of the Ionosphere on Space and Terrestrial Systems , Edited by: Goodman , J M . 602 – 13 . Washington, DC : US Government Printing Office .
  • Wu , J . 1998 . Mean arrival time of a plane pulse wave through a random medium . Chin. J. Electron. , 7 : 275 – 8 .
  • Wu , J . 1999 . Analytic solutions of the two-frequency and two-position mutual coherence function for wave propagating through random media . Chin. J. Electron. , 8 : 313 – 6 .
  • Wu , J , Huo , W-P and Xu , Z-W . A solution of the four-frequency and four-position mutual coherence function of wave propagating through a turbulent medium slab . PIERS2003: Symp. on Progress in Electromagnetics Research . 2003 , Singapore. Jan .
  • Wu , J and Liu , R Y . ISSP'86: Proc. Int. Symp. on Space Physics . Nov 1986 . pp. 5 – 42 . Beijing
  • Wu , J and Liu , R Y . 1989 . The solution of the forward multiple scattering moment equation and its applications to ionospheric scintillations . Sci. Sin. , A 19 : 1322 – 32 . (in Chinese)
  • Xu , Z-W , Wu , J and Huo , W-P . The temporal broadening of pulse signals propagating through a turbulent medium . PIERS2003: Symp. on Progress in Electromagnetics Research . Jan 2003 , Singapore.
  • Xu , Z-W , Wu , J , Huo , W-P and Wu , Z-S . 2003b . Temporal skewness of electromagnetic pulsed waves propagating through random media with embedded irregularity slab . Chin. Phys. Lett. , 20 : 370 – 3 .
  • Xu , Z W , Wu , J , Huo , W P and Wu , Z S . 2003c . The temporal broadening of pulsed waves propagating through turbulent media . Sci. China , G 46 : 337 – 47 .
  • Xu , Z-W , Wu , J and Wu , Z-S . 2003d . Statistical temporal behaviour of pulse wave propagation through continuous random media . Waves Random Media , 13 : 59 – 73 .
  • Xu , Z-W , Wu , J and Wu , Z-S . 2003e . Second-order statistics of radio wave propagation through the structured ionosphere, submitted .
  • Yeh , K C . 1983 . Mutual coherence functions and intensities of backscattered signals in a turbulent medium . Radio Sci. , 18 : 159 – 65 .
  • Yeh , K C and Chao , H Y . 1999 . A study of the generalized Faraday effect in several media . Radio Sci. , 34 : 139 – 53 .
  • Yeh , K C , Chao , H Y and Lin , K H . 1999 . Polarization transformation of a wave field propagating in an anisotropic medium . IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag. , 41 ( 5 ) : 19 – 33 .
  • Yeh , K C and Liu , C H . 1972 . Theory of Ionospheric Waves , San Diego, CA : Academic .
  • Yeh , K C and Liu , C H . 1977 . An investigation of temporal moments of stochastic waves . Radio Sci. , 12 : 671 – 80 .
  • Yeh , K C and Liu , C H . 1979 . Ionospheric effects on radio communication and ranging pulses . IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. , 27 : 747 – 51 .
  • Yeh , K C and Liu , C H . 1982 . Radio wave scintillations in the ionosphere . Proc. IEEE , 70 : 324 – 60 .
  • Yeh , K C and Yang , C C . 1977 . Mean arrival time and mean pulsewidth of signals propagating through a dispersive and random medium . IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. , 25 : 710 – 3 .
  • Young , C Y , Ishimaru , A and Andrews , L C . 1996 . Two-frequency mutual coherence function of a Gaussian beam pulse in weak optical turbulence: an analytical solution . Appl. Opt. , 35 : 6522 – 6 .
  • Yueh , S H . 2000 . Estimates of Faraday rotation with passive microwave polarimetry for microwave remote sensing of Earth surfaces . IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. , 38 : 2434 – 8 .
  • Zakharov , A I and Armand , N A . An algorithm for estimation of Faraday rotation for P-band polarimetric SAR . IGARSS'99: Proc. IEEE., 1999 Int. Symp. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing . 1999 . pp. 1460 – 2 . Piscataway, NJ : IEEE .
  • Zebker , H A , Rosen , P A and Hensley , S . 1997 . Atmospheric effects in interferometric synthetic aperture radar surface deformation and topographic maps . J. Geophys. Res. , 102 : 7547 – 63 .
  • Zebker , H T . 1992 . Decorrelation in interferometric radar echoes . IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. , 30 : 950 – 9 .
  • Zhen , W , Wu , J , Liu , D and Xu , W . Ionospheric scintillation observed by GPS at Zhongshan station of Antarctica . PIERS2003: Symp. on Progress in Electromagnetics Research . 2003 . Jan . Singapore

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.