References
- American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
- American Psychological Association (2007). Report of the APA Task Force on the sexualization of girls. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
- Angst, J. (1998). Sexual problems in health and depressed persons. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 13, S1–S4. doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/00004850‐199807006‐00001
- Aubrey, J. S. (2006). Effects of sexually objectifying media on self‐objectification and body surveillance in undergraduates: Results of a 2‐year panel study. Journal of Communication, 56, 366–386. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460‐2466.2006.00024.x
- Aubrey, J. S., Henson, J. R., Hopper, K. M., & Smith, S. E. (2009). A picture is worth twenty words (about the self): Testing the priming influence of visual sexual objectification on women's self‐objectification. Communication Research Reports, 26, 271–284. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/08824090903293551
- Augustus‐horvath, C. L., & Tylka, T. L. (2009). A test and extension of objectification theory as it predicts disordered eating: Does women's age matter? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 253–265. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014637
- Basow, S. A., Cahill, K. F., Phelan, J. E., Longshore, K., & Mcgillicuddy‐delisi, A. (2007). Perceptions of relational and physical aggression among college students: Effects of gender of perpetrator, target, and perceiver. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 85–95. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.2007.00333.x
- Beumont, P. J. V., & Touyz, S. W. (1985). The syndrome of anorexia nervosa. In S. W. Touyz & P. J. V. Beumont (Eds.), Eating disorders: Prevalence and treatment (pp. 1–10). Sydney, NSW: Williams & Wilkins.
- Bordo, S. (1993). Unbearable weight: Feminism, Western culture, and the body. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
- Brown, T. A., & Barlow, D. H. (2009). A proposal for a dimensional classification system based on the shared features of the DSM‐IV anxiety and mood disorders: Implications for assessment and treatment. Psychological Assessment, 21, 256–271. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016608
- Calogero, R. M. (2004). A test of objectification theory: The effect of the male gaze on appearance concerns in college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 16–21. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.2004.00118.x
- Calogero, R. M. (2009). Objectification processes and disordered eating in British women and men. Journal of Health Psychology, 14, 394–402. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105309102192
- Calogero, R. M. (2011). Operationalizing self‐objectification: Assessment and related methodological issues. In R. M. Calogero , S. Tantleff‐dunn , & J. K. Thompson (Eds.), Self‐objectification in women: Causes, consequences, and counteractions (pp. 23–49). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
- Calogero, R. M., Davis, W. N., & Thompson, J. K. (2005). The role of self‐objectification in the experience of women with eating disorders. Sex Roles, 52, 43–50. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐005‐1192‐9
- Calogero, R. M., Herbozo, S., & Thompson, J. K. (2009). Complimentary weightism: The potential costs of appearance‐related commentary for women's self‐objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 120–132. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.2008.01479.x
- Calogero, R. M., & Thompson, J. K. (2009). Sexual self‐esteem in American and British college women: Relations with self‐objectification and eating problems. Sex Roles, 60, 160–173. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐008‐9517‐0
- Cash, T. F. (2008). The body image workbook (2nd Ed). Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.
- Daubenmier, J. J. (2005). The relationship of yoga, body awareness, and body responsiveness to self‐objectification and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 207–219. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.2005.00183.x
- Engeln‐maddox, R., Miller, S. A., & Doyle, D. M. (2011). Tests of objectification theory in gay, lesbian, and heterosexual community samples: Mixed evidence for proposed pathways. Sex Roles, 65, 518–532. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐011‐9958‐8
- Fairburn, C. G. (2008). Cognitive behavior therapy and eating disorders. New York: Guilford Press.
- Fairburn, C. G., Cooper, Z., Doll, H. A., O'connor, M. E., Bohn, K., Hawker, D. M. et al. (2009). Transdiagnostic cognitive‐behavioural therapy for patients with eating disorders: A two‐site trial with 60‐week follow‐up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 311–319. doi: https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.0804060
- Fairburn, C. G., Shafran, R., & Cooper, Z. (1998). A cognitive behavioural theory of anorexia nervosa. Behavior Research and Therapy, 37, 1–13. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005‐7967(98)00102‐8
- Fitzsimmons‐craft, E. E., & Bardone‐cone, A. M. (2012). Examining prospective mediation models of body surveillance, trait anxiety, and body dissatisfaction in African American and Caucasian college women. Sex Roles, 67, 187–200. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐012‐0151‐5
- Fitzsimmons‐craft, E. E., Bardone‐cone, A. M., & Kelly, K. A. (2011). Objectified body consciousness in relation to recovery from an eating disorder. Eating Behaviors, 12, 302–308. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2011.09.001
- Frederick, D. A., Forbes, G. B., Grigorian, K. E., & Jarcho, J. M. (2007). The UCLA Body Project I: Gender and ethnic differences in self‐objectification and body satisfaction among 2206 undergraduates. Sex Roles, 57, 317–327. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐007‐9251‐z
- Fredrickson, B. L., Hendler, L. M., Nilsen, S., O'barr, J. F., & Roberts, T.‐A. (2011). Bringing back the body: A retrospective on the development of objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 689–696. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311426690
- Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.1997.tb00108.x
- Fredrickson, B. L., Roberts, T. A., Noll, S. M., Quinn, D. M., & Twenge, J. M. (1998). That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self‐objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 269–284. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0090332
- Frohlich, P. F., & Meston, C. M. (2002). Sexual functioning and self‐reported depressive symptoms among college women. Journal of Sex Research, 39, 321–325. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490209552156
- Gapinski, K. D., Brownell, K. D., & Lafrance, M. (2003). Body objectification and “fat talk”: Effects on emotion, motivation, and cognitive performance. Sex Roles, 48, 377–388. doi: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023516209973
- Gay, R. K., & Castano, E. (2010). My body or my mind: The impact of state and trait objectification on women's cognitive resources. European Journal of Social Psychology, 40, 695–703. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.731
- Gervais, S. J., Vescio, T. K., & Allen, J. (2011). When what you see is what you get: The consequences of the objectifying gaze for women and men. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 5–17. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684310386121
- Grabe, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2009). Body objectification, MTV, and psychological outcomes among female adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 39, 2840–2858. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559‐1816.2009.00552.x
- Greenleaf, C. (2005). Self‐objectification among physically active women. Sex Roles, 52, 51–62. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐005‐1193‐8
- Greenleaf, C., & Mcgreer, R. (2006). Disordered eating attitudes and self‐objectification among physically active and sedentary female college students. Journal of Psychology, 140, 187–198. doi: https://doi.org/10.3200/JRLP.140.3.187‐198
- Harper, B. J., & Tiggemann, M. (2008). The effect of thin ideal media images on women's self‐obectification, mood, and body image. Sex Roles, 58, 649–657. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐007‐9379‐x
- Harrison, K., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2003). Women's sport media, self‐objectification and mental health in black and white adolescent females. Journal of Communication, 53, 216–232. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460‐2466.2003.tb02587.x
- Harter, S. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York: Guilford.
- Hebl, M. R., King, E. B., & Lin, J. (2004). The swimsuit becomes us all: Ethnicity, gender, and vulnerability to self‐objectification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1322–1331. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204264052
- Hill, M. S., & Fischer, A. R. (2008). Examining objectification theory: Lesbian and heterosexual women's experiences with sexual‐ and self‐objectification. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 745–776. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000007301669
- Hurt, M. M., Nelson, J. A., Turner, D. L., Haines, M. E., Ramsey, L. R., Erchull, M. J., & Liss, M. (2007). Feminism: What is it good for? Feminine norms and objectification as the link between feminist identity and clinically relevant outcomes. Sex Roles, 57, 355–363. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐007‐9272‐7
- Kozee, H. B., Tylka, T. L., Augustus‐horvath, C. L., & Denchik, A. (2007). Development and psychometric evaluation of the interpersonal sexual objectification scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 176–189. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.2007.00351.x
- Kristeller, J. L., Baer, R. A., & Quillian‐wolever, R. (2006). Mindfulness‐based approaches to eating disorders. In R. A. Baer (Ed.), Mindfulness‐based treatment approaches: Clinician's guide to evidence base and applications (pp. 75–91). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
- Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K. (2009). Everybody knows that mass media are/are not [pick one] a cause of eating disorders”: A critical review of evidence for a causal link between media, negative body image, and disordered eating in females. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28, 9–42. doi: https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.1.9
- Levine, M. P., & Piran, N. (2004). The role of body image in the prevention of eating disorders. Body Image, 1, 57–70. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1740‐1445(03)00006‐8
- Lindberg, S. M., Grabe, S., & Hyde, J. S. (2007). Gender, pubertal development, and peer sexual harassment predict objectified body consciousness in early adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17, 723–742. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532‐7795.2007.00544.x
- Lindner, D., Tantleff‐dunn, S., & Jentsch, F. (2012). Social comparison and the “circle of objectification”. Sex Roles, 67, 222–235. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐012‐0175‐x
- Madden, S., Morris, A., Zurynski, Y. A., Kohn, M., & Elliot, E. J. (2009). Burden of eating disorders in 5–13‐year‐old children in Australia. Medical Journal of Australia, 190, 410–414. doi: 19374611
- Martins, Y., Tiggemann, M., & Kirkbride, A. (2007). Those Speedos become them: The role of self‐objectification in gay and heterosexual men's body image. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 634–647. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167206297403
- Mckinley, N. M. (1998). Gender differences in undergraduates' body esteem: The mediating effect of objectified body consciousness and actual/ideal weight discrepancy. Sex Roles, 39, 113–123. doi: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1018834001203
- Mckinley, N. M. (1999). Women and objectified body consciousness: Mothers' and daughters body experience in cultural, developmental, and familial context. Developmental Psychology, 35, 760–769. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/0012‐1649.35.3.760
- Mckinley, N. M. (2006). The developmental and cultural contexts of objectified body consciousness: A longitudinal analysis of two cohorts of women. Developmental Psychology, 42, 679–687. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/0012‐1649.42.4.679
- Mckinley, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale: Development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20, 181–215. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.1996.tb00467.x
- Menzel, J. E., Schaefer, L. M., Burke, N. L., Mayhew, L. L., Brannick, M. T., & Thompson, J. K. (2010). Appearance‐related teasing, body satisfaction, and disordered eating: A meta‐analysis. Body Image, 7, 261–270. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.05.004
- Mercurio, A., & Rima, B. (2011). Watching my weight: Self‐weighing, body surveillance, and body dissatisfaction. Sex Roles, 65, 47–55. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐011‐9980‐x
- Mitchell, K. S., & Mazzeo, S. E. (2009). Evaluation of a structural model of objectification theory and eating disorder symptomatology among European American and African American undergraduate women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 384–395. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.2009.01516.x
- Monro, F., & Huon, G. (2005). Media‐portrayed idealized images, body shame, and appearance anxiety. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 38, 85–90. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.20153
- Moradi, B., Dirks, D., & Matteson, A. V. (2005). Roles of sexual objectification experiences and internalization of standards of beauty in eating disorder symptomatology: A test and extension of objectification theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 420–428. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022‐0167.52.3.420
- Morry, M. M., & Staska, S. L. (2001). Magazine exposure: Internalization, self‐objectification, eating attitudes, and body satisfaction in male and female university students. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 33, 269–279. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087148
- Muehlenkamp, J. J., & Saris‐baglama, R. N. (2002). Self‐objectification and its psychological outcomes for college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 371–379. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/1471‐6402.t01‐1‐00076
- Muehlenkamp, J. J., Swanson, J. D., & Brausch, A. M. (2005). Self‐objectification, risk taking, and self‐harm in college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 24–32. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.2005.00164.x
- Myers, T. A., & Crowther, J. H. (2008). Is self‐objectification related to interoceptive awareness? An examination of potential mediating pathways to disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 172–180. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.2008.00421.x
- National Advisory Group on Body Image (2009). A Proposed National Strategy on Body Image. Retrieved from http://www.apo.org.au/node/19505.
- Noll, S. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). A mediational model linking self‐objectification, body shame and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22, 623–636. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.1998.tb00181.x
- Okhuysen, G., & Bonardi, J. (2011). Editors' comments: The challenges of building theory by combining lenses. The Academy of Management Review, 36, 6–11. doi: https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2011.55662498
- Parsons, E. M., & Betz, N. E. (2001). The relationship of participation in sports and physical activity to body objectification, instrumentality, and locus of control among young women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 209–222. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/1471‐6402.00022
- Peat, C. M., & Muehlenkamp, J. J. (2011). Self‐objectification, disordered eating, and depression: A test of mediational pathways. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 441–450. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311400389
- Pinheiro, A. P., Raney, T. J., Thornton, L. M., Fichter, M. M., Berrettini, W. H., Goldman, D. et al. (2009). Sexual functioning in women with eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 43, 123–129. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.2067
- Piran, N. (2001). Re‐inhabiting the body from the inside out: Girls transform their school environment. In D. L. Tolman & M. Brydon‐miller (Eds.), From subjects to subjectivities: A handbook of interpretative and participatory methods (pp. 218–238). New York: NYU Press.
- Prichard, I., & Tiggemann, M. (2005). Objectification in fitness centres: Self‐objectification, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating in aerobic instructors and aerobic participants. Sex Roles, 53, 19–28. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐005‐4270‐0
- Quinn, D. M., Kallen, R. W., & Cathey, C. (2006). Body on my mind: The lingering effect of state self‐objectification. Sex Roles, 55, 869–874. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐006‐9140‐x
- Quinn, D. M., Kallen, R. W., Twenge, J. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). The disruptive effect of self‐objectification on performance. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30, 50–64. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.2006.00262.x
- Reas, D. L., Whisenhunt, B. L., Netemeyer, R., & Williamson, D. A. (2002). Development of the Body Checking Questionnaire: A self‐report measure of body checking behaviours. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 324–333. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.10012
- Reist, M. T. (Ed.) (2009). Getting real: Challenging the sexualisation of girls. Melbourne, Vic.: Spinifex Press.
- Roberts, T.‐A. (2004). “Female trouble:” The Menstrual Self‐Evaluation Scale and women's self‐objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 22–26. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.2004.00119.x
- Roberts, T.‐A., & Gettman, J. Y. (2004). Mere exposure: Gender differences in the negative effects of priming a state of self‐objectification. Sex Roles, 51, 17–27. doi: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000032306.20462.22
- Rolnik, A. M., Engeln‐maddox, R., & Miller, S. A. (2010). Here's looking at you: Self‐objectification, body image disturbance, and sorority rush. Sex Roles, 63, 6–17. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐010‐9745‐y
- Shafran, R., Fairburn, C. G., Robinson, P., & Lask, B. (2004). Body checking and its avoidance in eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35, 93–101. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.10228
- Shafran, R., Lee, M., Payne, E., & Fairburn, C. G. (2007). An experimental analysis of body checking. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 113–121. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2006.01.015
- Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2002). A test of objectification theory in adolescent girls. Sex Roles, 46, 343–349. doi: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020232714705
- Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2006). The contribution of physical activity and media during childhood and adolescence to adult women's body image. Journal of Health Psychology, 11, 553–565. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105306065016
- Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2010). Body image and disordered eating in adolescent girls and boys: A test of objectification theory. Sex Roles, 63, 42–49. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐010‐9794‐2
- Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2012). Time since menarche and sport participation as predictors of self‐objectification: A longitudinal study of adolescent girls. Sex Roles, 67, 571–581. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐012‐0200‐0
- Smolak, L., Murnen, S. K., & Ruble, A. E. (2000). Female athletes and eating problems: A meta‐analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 371–380. doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098‐108X(200005)27:4<371:AID‐EAT1>3.0.CO;2‐Y
- Steer, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2008). The role of self‐objectification in women's sexual functioning. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27, 205–225. doi: https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2008.27.3.205
- Strelan, P., & Hargreaves, D. (2005). Women who objectify other women: The vicious circle of objectification. Sex Roles, 52, 707–712. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐005‐3737‐3
- Strelan, P., Mehaffey, S. J., & Tiggeman, M. (2003). Self‐objectification and esteem in young women: The mediating role of reasons for exercise. Sex Roles, 48, 89–95. doi: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022300930307
- Tiggemann, M., & Boundy, M. (2008). Effect of environment and appearance compliment on college women's self‐objectification, mood, body shame, and cognitive performance. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 399–405. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471‐6402.2008.00453.x
- Tiggemann, M., & Kuring, J. K. (2004). The role of body objectification in disordered eating and depressed mood. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 299–311. doi: https://doi.org/10.1348/0144665031752925
- Tiggemann, M., & Lynch, J. E. (2001). Body image across the life span in adult women: The role of self‐objectification. Developmental Psychology, 37, 243–253. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/0012‐1649.37.2.243
- Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2001). A test of objectification theory in former dancers and non‐dancers. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 25, 57–64. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/1471‐6402.00007
- Tiggemann, M., & Williams, E. (2012). The role of self‐objectification in disordered eating, depressed mood, and sexual functioning among women: A comprehensive test of objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 66–75. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311420250
- Tylka, T. L., & Hill, S. (2004). Objectification theory as it relates to disordered eating among college women. Sex Roles, 51, 719–730. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐004‐0721‐2
- Tylka, T. L., & Sabik, N. J. (2010). Integrating social comparison theory and self‐esteem within objectification theory to predict women's disordered eating. Sex Roles, 63, 18–31. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199‐010‐9785‐3
- Wiseman, M. C., & Moradi, B. (2010). Body image and eating disorder symptoms in sexual minority men: A test and extension of objectification theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 154–166. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018937
- Zurbriggen, E. L. , & Roberts, T.‐A. (Eds.) (2013). The sexualisation of girls and girlhood. Oxford: Oxford University Press.