1,147
Views
53
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Invited Review

Identifying and characterising cerebral visual impairment in children: a review

, MS & , MD FRCS Ed (Hon) FRCOphth
Pages 196-208 | Received 14 Jan 2014, Accepted 24 Mar 2014, Published online: 15 Apr 2021

References

  • Dutton GN, Jacobson L. Cerebral visual impairment in children. Semin Neonatol 2001; 6: 477–485.
  • Edmond J, Foroozon R. Cortical Visual impairment in children. Curr Opin Ophthalmol 2006; 17: 509–512.
  • Macintyre‐beon C, Ibrahim H, Hay I, Cockburn D, Calvert J, Dutton GN, Bowman R. Dorsal stream dysfunction in children: a review and an approach to diagnosis and management. Curr Ped Rev 2010; 6: 166–182.
  • Dutton GN, Bax M. Visual Impairment in Children due to Damage to the Brain. London: MacKeith Press, 2010.
  • Jokl D‐K, Hiyama F. Tatsuji Inouye‐Topographer of the visual cortex. Exemplar of the Germany–Japan Ophthalmic Legacy of the Meiji era. Neuro‐Ophthalmol 2007; 31: 33–43.
  • Holmes G. Disturbances of vision by cerebral lesions. Br J Ophthalmol 1918; 2: 353–384.
  • Holmes G. Disturbances of visual orientation. Br J Ophthalmol 1918; 2: 449–468, 506–516.
  • Fazzi E, Bova SM, Uggetti C, Signorini SG, Bianchi PE, Maraucci I, Zoppello M et al. Visual‐perceptual impairment in children with periventricular leukomalacia. Brain Dev 2004; 26: 506–512.
  • Boot FH, Pel JJ, van der Steen J, Evenhuis HM. Cerebral visual impairment: which perspective visual dysfunction can be expected in children with brain damage? A systematic review. Res Dev Disabil 2010; 31: 1149–1159.
  • Flanagan NM, Jackson AJ, Hill AE. Visual impairment in childhood: insights from a community‐based survey. Child Care Health Dev 2003; 29: 493–499.
  • Mcclelland J, Saunders KJ, Hill N, Magee A, Shannon M, Jackson AJ. The changing visual profile attending a regional specialist school for the visually impaired in Northern Ireland. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2007; 27: 556–560.
  • Boonstra N, Limburg H, Tijmes N, van Genderen M, Schuil J, van Nispen. R. Changes in causes of low vision between 1988 and 2009 in a Dutch population of children. Acta Ophthalmol 2012; 90: 277–286.
  • Gilbert CE, Anderton L, Dandona L, Foster A. Prevalence of visual impairment in children: a review of available data. Ophthalmic Epidemol 1999; 6: 73–82.
  • Williams C, Northstone K, Sabates R, Feinstein L, Emond A, Dutton G. Visual perceptual difficulties and under‐achievement at school in a large community‐based sample of children. PLoS One 2011; 6: e14772.
  • Macintyre‐béon C, Young D, Dutton G, Mitchell K, Simpson J, Loffler G, Bowman R. Cerebral visual dysfunction in prematurely born children attending mainstream school. Doc Ophthalmol 2013; 127: 89–102.
  • Schenk‐rootlieb AJ, van Nieuwenhuizen O, van Waes PF, van der Graaf Y. Cerebral visual impairment in cerebral palsy: relation to structural abnormalities of the cerebrum. Neuropediatrics 1994; 25: 68–72.
  • Lagunju IA, Oluleye TS. Ocular abnormalities in children with cerebral palsy. Afr J Med Med Sci 2007; 36: 71–75.
  • Katoch S, Devi A, Kulkarni P. Ocular defects in cerebral palsy. Indian J Ophthalmol 2007; 55: 154–156.
  • Back SA. Perinatal white matter injury: the changing spectrum of pathology and emerging insights into pathogenetic mechanisms. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2006; 12: 129–140.
  • Ferriero DM. Neonatal brain injury. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1985–1995.
  • Volpe JJ. Neurobiology of periventricular leukomalacia in the premature infant. Pediatr Res 2001; 50: 553–562.
  • Soul J, Matsuba C. Common aetiologies of cerebral visual impairment. In: Dutton GN, Bax M, eds. Visual Impairment in Children due to Damage to the Brain. London: MacKeith Press, 2010. p 20–26.
  • Bracewell M, Marlow N. Patterns of motor disability in very preterm children. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2002; 8: 241–248.
  • Fazzi E, Signorini S, Bova SM, La piana R, Ondei P, Bertone C, Misefari W et al. Spectrum of visual disorders in children with cerebral visual impairment. J Child Neurol 2007; 22: 294–301.
  • Good WV, Jan JE, Desa L, Barkovich AJ, Groenveld M, Hoyt CS. Cortical visual impairment in children. Surv Ophthalmol 1994; 38: 351–364.
  • Cioni G, Fazzi B, Coluccini M, Bartalena L, Boldrini A, van Hof‐van duin J. Cerebral visual impairment in preterm infants with periventricular leukomalacia. Pediatr Neurol 1997; 17: 331–338.
  • Mercuri E, Atkinson J, Braddick O, Anker S, Cowan F, Rutherford M, Pennock J. Visual function in full‐term infants with hypoxic‐ischaemic encephalopathy. Neuropediatrics 1997; 28: 155–161.
  • Saidkasimova S, Bennett D, Butler S, Dutton GN. Cognitive visual impairment with good visual acuity in children with posterior periventricular white matter injury: a case series of 7 cases. J AAPOS 2007; 11: 426–430.
  • Roland EH, Jan JE, Hill A, Wong PK. Cortical visual impairment following birth asphyxia. Pediatr Neurol 1986; 2: 133–137.
  • Mercuri E, Atkinson J, Braddick O, Anker S, Cowan F, Rutherford M, Pennock J. Basal ganglia damage and impaired visual function in the newborn infant. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal 1997; 77: F111‐F114.
  • Jan JE, Groenveld M. Visual behaviours and adaptations associated with cortical and ocular impairment in children. J Vis Impair Blind 1993; 87: 101–105.
  • Clinical abnormalities of the ocular motor system. Neuro‐ophthalmology: American Academy of Ophthalmology, 2002. p. 134–135.
  • Morris KP, Forsyth RJ, Parslow RC, Tasker RC, Hawley CA, UK Paediatric Traumatic Brain Injury Study Group, Paediatric Intensive Care Society Study Group. Intracranial pressure complicating severe traumatic injury in children: monitoring and management. Intensive Care Med 2006; 32: 1606–1612.
  • Jan JE, Sykanda A, Groenveld, M. Habilitation and rehabilitation of visually impaired and blind children. Pediatrician 1990; 17: 202–207.
  • el Azazi M, Malm G, Forsgren M. Late ophthalmologic manifestations of neonatal herpes simplex virus infection. Am J Ophthalmol 1990; 109: 1–7.
  • Somand D, Meurer W. Central nervous system infections. Emerg Med Clin N Am 2009; 27: 89–100.
  • Chen TC, Weinberg MH, Catalano RA, Simon JW, Wagle WA. Development of object vision in infants with permanent cortical visual impairment. Am J Ophthalmol 1992; 114: 575–578.
  • Minz S, Balraj V, Lalitha MK, Murali N, Cherian T, Manoharan G, Kadirvan S et al. Incidence of Haemophilus influenza type b meningitis in India. Indian J Med Res 2008; 128: 57–64.
  • Van rie A, Mupuala A, Dow A. Impact of the HIV/AIDS on the neurodevelopment of preschool—aged children in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. Pediatrics 2008; 122: e123–128.
  • Roca‐feltrer A, Kwizombe CJ, Sanjoaquin MA, Sesay SS, Faragher B, Harrison J, Guekers K et al. Lack of decline in childhood malaria, Malawi, 2001–2010. Emerg Infect Dis 2012; 18: 272–278.
  • Huppatz C, Durrheim D, Levi C, Williams D, Clements MS, Kelly PM. Etiology of encephalitis in Australia. Emerg Infect Dis 2009; 15: 1359–1365.
  • Fouad H, Haron M, Halawa EF, Nada M. Non‐traumatic outcome in a tertiary paediatric emergency department in Eygpt. J Child Neurol 2011; 26: 136–141.
  • Barkovich AJ, Ali FA, Rowley HA, Bass N. Imaging patterns of neonatal hypoglycaemia. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1998; 19: 523–528.
  • Burton BK. Inborn errors of metabolism in infancy: a guide to diagnosis. Pediatrics 1998; 102: e69.
  • Whiting S, Jan JE, Wong PK, Flodmark O, Farrell K, Mccormick AQ. Permanent cortical visual impairment in children. Dev Med Child Neurol 1985; 27: 730–739.
  • Jacobson L, Flodmark O. Visual dysfunction and ocular findings associated with white matter damage of immaturity. In: Dutton GN, Bax M, eds. Visual Impairment in Children due to Damage to the Brain. London: MacKeith Press, 2010. p 27–34.
  • Castano G, Lyons CJ, Jan JE, Connolly M. Cortical visual impairment in children with infantile spams. J AAPOS 2000; 4: 175–178.
  • Burns L, Mattick RP, Lim K, Wallace C. Methadone in pregnancy: treatment retention and neonatal outcomes. Addiction 2007; 102: 264–270.
  • Lloyd DJ, Myserscough EJ. Substance misuse research—neonatal abstinence syndrome. A new intervention: a community based, structured health visitor assessment. Scottish Executive Social Research Substance Misuse Research Programme, 2006.
  • Hamilton R, Mcglone L, Mackinnon JR, Russell HC, Bradnam MS, Mactier H. Ophthalmic, clinical and visual electrophysiological findings in children born to mothers prescribed substitute methadone in pregnancy. Br J Ophthalmol 2010; 94: 696–700.
  • Foley J, Paterson H. Cortical blindness and spastic quadriparesis following apnoea in an asthmatic attack. Proc R Soc Med 1954; 47: 296–297.
  • Datt V, Virmani S, Malik I, Agarwal S, Joshi CS, Dhingra A, Dutta R et al. Irreversible loss of vision in a paediatric patient due to occipital infarction after cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Card Anaesth 2012; 15: 88–90.
  • Gillen JA, Dutton G. Balint's syndrome in a 10‐year‐old male. Dev Med Child Neurol 2003; 45: 349–352.
  • Wong VC. Cortical blindness in children: a study of etiology and prognosis. Pediatr Neurol 1991; 7: 178–185.
  • Wen SW, Smith G, Yang Q, Walker M. Epidemiology of preterm birth and neonatal outcome. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2004; 9: 429–435.
  • Li Z, Mcnally L, Hilder L, Sullivan EA. Australia's Mothers and Babies. 2009. Sydney: AIHW National Perinatal Epidemiology and Statistics, 2011.
  • Singh V, Singh N, Shikha S. A prospective analysis of etiology and outcome of preterm labour. J Obstet Gynecol India 2007; 57: 48–52.
  • Dutton GN. The spectrum of cerebral visual impairment as a sequel to premature birth: an overview. Doc Ophthalmol 2013; 126: 1–12.
  • O'connor AR, Stephenson TJ, Johnson A, Tobin MJ, Ratib S, Moseley M, Fielder AR. Visual function in low birthweight children. Br J Ophthalmol 2004; 88: 1149–1153.
  • Dutton GN, Saaed A, Fahad B, Fraser R, Mcdaid G, Mcdade J, Mackintosh A et al. The association of binocular lower visual field impairment, impaired simultaneous perception, disordered visually guided motion and inaccurate saccades in children with cerebral visual dysfunction‐a retrospective observational study. Eye 2004; 18: 27–34.
  • Schneider GE. Two visual systems. Science 1969; 163: 895–902.
  • Króliczak AG, Mcadam TD, Quinlan DJ, Culham JC. The human dorsal stream adapts to real actions and 3D shape processing: a functional magnetic resonance study. J Neurophysiol 2008; 100: 2627–2639.
  • Jacobson L, Dutton GN. Periventricular leukomalacia: an important cause of visual and ocular motility dysfunction in children. Surv Ophthalmol 2000; 45: 1–13.
  • Jakobson LS, Archibald YM, Carey DP, Goodale MA. A kinematic analysis of reaching and grasping movements in a patient recovering from optic ataxia. Neuropscyhologica 1991; 29: 803–809.
  • Jacobson L, Flodmark O, Martin L. Visual defects in prematurely born patients with white matter damage of immaturity: a multiple—case study. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2006; 84: 357–362.
  • Jacobson LS, Frisk V, Knight RM, Downie ALS, Whyte H. The relationship between periventricular brain injury and deficits in visual processing among extremely‐low‐birth weight (<1000g) children. J Pediatr Psychol 2001; 26: 503–512.
  • Fazzi E, Signorini SG, Bianchi PE. Visual impairment in cerebral palsy. In: Dutton GN, Bax M, eds. Visual Impairment in Children due to Damage to the Brain. London: MacKeith Press, 2010. p 194–204.
  • Ghasia F, Brunstrom J, Gordon M, Tychsen L. Frequency and severity of visual sensory and motor deficits in children with cerebral palsy: gross motor function classification scale. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49: 572–580.
  • Ruberto G, Salati R, Milano G, Bertone C, Tinelli C, Fazzi E, Guagliano R et al. Changes in the optic disc excavation of children affected by cerebral visual impairment: a tomographic analysis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2006; 47: 484–488.
  • Jacobson L, Lundin S, Flodmark O, Ellström, KG. Periventricular leukomalacia causes visual impairment in preterm children. A study on the aetiologies of visual impairment in a population‐based group of preterm children born 1989–95 in the country of of Värmland, Sweden. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 1998; 76: 593–598.
  • Uggetti C, Egitto MG, Fazzi E, Bianchi PE, Zappoli F, Martelli A, Lanzi G. Transsynaptic degeneration of lateral geniculate bodies in blind children: in vivo MR demonstration. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1997; 18: 233–238.
  • Little J, Woodhouse J, Lauritzen J, Saunders K. The impact of optical factors on resolution acuity in children with Down syndrome. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2007; 48: 3995–4001.
  • Holmström G, El‐azazi M, Kugelberg U. Ophthalmological long term follow up of preterm infants: a population based, prospective study of the refraction and its development. Br J Ophthalmol 1998; 82: 1265–1271.
  • Mcclelland JF, Parkes J, Hill N, Jackson AJ, Saunders KJ. Accommodative dysfunction in children with cerebral palsy: a population‐based study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2006; 47: 1824–1830.
  • Saunders KJ, Mcclelland JF, Richardson PM, Stevenson M. Clinical judgement of near pupil responses provides a useful indicator of focusing ability in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2008; 50: 33–37.
  • Saeed M, Henderson G, Dutton GN. Hyoscine skin patches for drooling dilate pupils and impair accommodation: spectacle correction for photophobia and blurred vision may be warranted. Dev Med Child Neurol 2007; 49: 426–428.
  • Firth AY, Walker K. Visual side‐effects from transdermal scopolamine (hyoscine). Dev Med Child Neurol 2006; 48: 137–138.
  • Fazzi E, Signorini S, La piana R, Bertone C, Misefari W, Galli J, Balottin U et al. Neuro‐ophthalmological disorders in cerebral palsy: ophthalmological, oculomotor, and visual aspects. Dev Med Child Neurol 2012; 54: 730–736.
  • Howard J, Soo B, Graham HK, Boyd RN, Reid S, Lanigan A, Wolfe R et al. Cerebral palsy in Victoria: motor types, topography and gross motor function. J Paediatr Child Health 2005; 41: 479–483.
  • Srivastava VK, Laisram N, Srivastava RK. Cerebral palsy. Indian Pediatr 1992; 29: 993–996.
  • Bhatia M, Joseph B. Rehabilitation of cerebral palsy in a developing country: The need for comprehensive assessment. Pediatr Rehabil 2000; 4: 83–86.
  • Govind A, Lamba PA. Visual disorders in cerebral palsy. Indian J Ophthalmol 1988; 36: 88–91.
  • Andersson S. Visual dysfunction associated with hyrdrocephalus. In: Dutton GN, Bax M, eds. Visual Impairment in Children due to Damage to the Brain. London: MacKeith Press, 2010. p 35–40.
  • Persson EK, Hagberg G, Uvebrant P. Hydrocephalus prevalence and outcome in a population. Acta Pediatr 2005; 94: 726–732.
  • Andersson S, Persson EK, Aring E, Lindquist B, Dutton GN, Hellström A. Vision in children with hyrdoceohalus. Dev Med Child Neurol 2006; 48: 836–841.
  • Mankinen‐heikkinen A, Muostonen E. Ophthalmic changes in hydrocephalus. A follow‐up examination of 50 patients treated with shunts. Acta Ophthalmol 1987; 65: 81–86.
  • Rabinowitz IM. Visual function in children with hydrocephalus. Trans Ophthalmol Soc UK 1974; 94: 353–366.
  • Houliston M, Taguri A, Dutton G, Hajivassiliou C, Young DG. Evidence of cognitive visual problems in children with hydrocephalus: a structured clinical history‐taking strategy. Dev Med Child Neurol 1999; 42: 298–306.
  • Ito J, Saijo H, Araki A, Tanaka H, Tasaki T, Cho K, Miyamoto A. Neuroradiological assessment of visuoperceptual disturbance in children with spina bifida and hydrocephalus. Dev Med Child Neurol 1997; 39: 385–392.
  • Kaplan P, Levison M, Kaplan BS. Cerebral artery stenoses in Williams syndrome cause stroke in childhood. J Pediatr 1995; 126: 943–945.
  • Mervis CB, Klein‐tasman BP. Williams syndrome: cognition, personality and adaptive behaviour. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2000; 6: 148–158.
  • Atkinson J, Anker, S, Braddick O, Nokes L, Mason A, Braddick F. Visual and visuospatial development in young children with Williams syndrome. Dev Med Child Neurol 2001; 43: 330–337.
  • Bertone A, Mottron L, Jelenic P, Faubert J. Enhanced and diminished visco‐espacial information processing in autismo dependa on stimulus complexity. Brain 2005; 128: 2430–2431.
  • Ricks DM, Wing L. Language, communication and the use of symbols in normal and autistic children. J Autism Child Schizophr 1975; 5: 191–221.
  • Pellicano E, Gibson L, Maybery M, Durkin K, Badcock DR. Abnormal global processing along the visual pathway in autism: a possible mechanism for weak visuospatial coherence? Neuropscyhologica 2005; 43: 1044–1053.
  • Milne E, Swettenham J, Campbell R. Motion perception and autistic spectrum disorder: A review. Curr Psychol Cogn 2005; 23: 4–34.
  • Boyle NJ, Jones DH, Hamilton R, Spowart KM, Dutton GN. Blindsight in children: does it exist and can it be used to help the child? Observations on a case series. Dev Med Child Neurol 2005; 47: 699–702.
  • Pueyo R, Junqué C, Vendrell P. Neuropsychologic differences between bilateral and spastic cerebral palsy. J Child Neurol 2003;18: 845–850.
  • Macintyre‐beon C, Young D, Calvert J, Ibrahim H, Dutton GN, Bowman R. Reliability of a question inventory for structured history taking in children with cerebral visual imapirment. Eye (Lond) 2012; 26: 139.
  • Dutton GN, Cockburn D, Mcdaid G, Macdonald E. Practical approaches for the management of visual problems due to cerebral visual impairment. In: Dutton GN, Bax M, eds. Visual Impairment in Children due to Damage to the Brain. London: MacKeith Press, 2010. p 217–224.
  • Mckillop E, Dutton, GN. Impairment of vision in children due to damage to the brain: a practical approach. Br Irish Orthopt J 2008; 5: 8–14.
  • Mackay AM, Bradnam MS, Hamilton R, Elliot AT, Dutton GN. Real‐time rapid acuity assessment using VEPs: development and validation of the step VEP technique. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49: 438–441.
  • Good WV, Hou C, Norcia AM. Spatial contrast senstivity vision loss in children with cortical visual impairment. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2012; 53: 7730–7734.
  • Good WV, Hou C. Sweep visual evoked potential grating acuity thresholds paradoxically improve in low‐luminace conditions in children with cortical visual impairment. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2006; 47: 322.
  • Lim M, Soul JS, Hansen RM, Mayer DL, Moskowitz A, Fulton AB. Development of visual acuity in children with cerebral visual impairment. Arch Ophthalmol 2005; 123: 1215–1220.
  • Bosworth RG, Dobkins KR. Effects of prematurity on the development of contrast sensitivity: testing the visual experience hypothesis. Vision Res 2013; 82: 31–41.
  • Bosworth RG, Robbins SL, Granet DB, Dobkins KR. Delayed luminance and chromatic contrast sensitivity in infants with spontaneously regressed retinopathy of prematurity. Doc Ophthalmol 2013; 127: 57–68.
  • Jacobson L, Rydberg A, Eliasson AC, Kits A, Flodmark O. Visual field function in school‐aged children with spastic unilateral cerebral palsy related to different patterns of brain damage. Dev Med Child Neurol 2010; 52: e184–187.
  • Ting DS, Pollock A, Dutton GN, Doubal FN, Thompson M, Dhillion B. Visual neglect following stroke: current concepts and future focus. Surv Ophthalmol 2011; 56: 114–134.
  • Pavlova M, Staudt M, Sokolov A, Birbaumer N, Krägeloh‐mann I. Perception and production of biological movement in patients with early periventricular brain lesions. Brain 2003; 126: 692–701.
  • Weinstein JM, Gilmore R, Shaikh SM, Kunselman AR, Trescher WV, Tashima LM, Boltz ME et al. Defective motion processing in children with cerebral visual impairment due to periventricular white matter damage. Dev Med Child Neurol 2012; 54: 1–8.
  • Kuba M, Liláková D, Hejcmanová D, Kremlácek J, Langrová J, Kubová Z. Ophthalmological examination and VEPs in preterm children with perinatal CNS involvement. Doc Ophthalmol 2008; 117: 137–145.
  • Goodale MA, Milner AD. Separate visual pathways for perception and action. Trends Neurosci 1992; 15: 20–25.
  • Guzzetta A, Tinelli F, Del viva MM, Bancale A, Arrighi R, Pascale RR, Cioni G. Motion perception in preterm children: role of prematurity and brain damage. Neuroreport 2009; 20: 1339–1343.
  • Pennefather PM, Tin W. Ocular abnormalities associated with cerebral palsy after preterm birth. Eye 2000; 14: 78–81.
  • Phillips PH, Fray K, Brodsky MC. Intermittent exotropia increasing with near fixation: a ‘soft’ sign of neurological disease. Br J Ophthalmol 2005; 89:1120–1122.
  • Simonsz HJ, Kolling G. Best age for surgery for infantile esotropia. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2011; 15: 205–208.
  • Adelson PD, Bratton SL, Carney NA, Chestnut RM, du Coudray HE, Goldstein B, Kochanek PM et al. Guidelines for the acute medical management of severe traumatic brain injury in infants, children and adolescents. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2003; 4: S19‐S24.
  • Fedrizzi E, Anderloni A, Bono R, Bova S, Farinotti M, Inverno M, Savoiardo S. Eye‐movement disorders and visual‐perceptual impairment in diplegic children born preterm: a clinical evaluation. Dev Med Child Neurol 1998; 40: 682–688.
  • Shah DK, Guinane C, August P, Austin NC, Woodward LJ, Thompson DK, Warfield SK et al. Reduced occipital regional volumes at term predict impaired visual function in early childhood in very low birth weight infants. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2006; 47: 3366–3373.
  • Ricci D, Anker S, Cowan F, Pane M, Gallini F, Luciano R, Donvito V et al. Thalamic atrophy in infants with PVL and cerebral visual impairment. Early Hum Dev 2006; 82: 591–595.
  • Glass HC, Fujimoto S, Ceppi‐cozzio C, Bartha AI, Vigneron DB, Barkovich AJ, Glidden DV et al. White‐matter injury is associated with impaired gaze in premature infants. Pediatr Neurol 2008; 38: 10–15.
  • Goodale MA. The functional organisation of the central visual pathways. In: Dutton GN, Bax M, eds. Visual Impairment in Children due to Damage to the Brain. London: MacKeith Press, 2010. p 5–19.
  • Rizzolatti G, Matelli M. Two different streams form the dorsal visual system: anatomy and functions. Exp Brain Res 2003; 153: 146–157.
  • Ungerleider LG, Haxby JV. ‘What’ and ‘where’ in the human brain. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1994; 4: 157–165.
  • Oliver RT, Thompson‐schill SL. Dorsal stream activation during retrieval of object size and shape. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci 2003; 3: 309–322.
  • Dutton GN. ‘Dorsal stream dysfunction’ and ‘dorsal stream dysfunction plus’: a potential classification for perceptual visual impairment in the context of cerebral visual impairment? Dev Med Child Neurol 2009; 51: 170–172.
  • Ortibus EL, De cock PP, Lagae LG. Visual perception in preterm children: what are we currently measuring? . Pediatr Neurol 2011; 45: 1–10.
  • Drummond SR, Dutton G. Simultanagnosia following perinatal hypoxia—A possible paediatric variant of Balint syndrome. J AAPOS 2007; 11: 497–498.
  • Bálint R. Seelenlähmung des ‘Schauens, ’ optische Ataxie, räumliche Störung der Aufmerksamkeit. Monatsschr Psychiatr Neurol 1909; 25: 51–81.
  • Mckillop E, Bennett D, Mcdaid G, Holland B, Smith G, Spowart K, Dutton GN. Problems experienced by children with cognitive visual dysfunction due to cerebral visual impairment‐ and the approaches which parents have adopted to deal with these problems. Br J Vis Impair 2006; 24: 121–127.
  • Guzzetta A, D'acunto G, Rose S, Tinelli F, Boyd R, Cioni G. Plasticity of the visual system after early brain damage. Dev Med Child Neurol 2010; 52: 891–900.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.