REFERENCES
- Mcbrien NA, Gentle A. Role of the sclera in the development and pathological complications of myopia. Prog Retin Eye Res 2003; 22: 307–338.
- Rim TH, Kim SH, Lim KH et al. Refractive errors in Koreans: the Korea National Health and nutrition examination survey 2008‐2012. Korean J Ophthalmol 2016; 30: 214–224.
- Sun JT, An M, Yan XB et al. Prevalence and related factors for myopia in school‐aged children in Qingdao. J Ophthalmol 2018; 2018: 9781987.
- French AN, Morgan IG, Mitchell P et al. Risk factors for incident myopia in Australian schoolchildren: the Sydney adolescent vascular and eye study. Ophthalmology 2013; 120: 2100–2108.
- Wen G, Tarczy‐hornoch K, Mckean‐cowdin R et al. Multi‐Ethnic Pediatric Eye Disease Study Group; Prevalence of myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism in non‐Hispanic white and Asian children: multi‐ethnic pediatric eye disease study. Ophthalmology 2013; 120: 2109–2116.
- Lam CS, Lam CH, Cheng SC et al. Prevalence of myopia among Hong Kong Chinese schoolchildren: changes over two decades. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2012; 32: 17–24.
- Lin LL, Shih YF, Hsiao CK et al. Prevalence of myopia in Taiwanese schoolchildren: 1983 to 2000. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2004; 33: 27–33.
- Tabandeh H, Flynn HW Jr, Scott IU et al. Visual acuity outcomes of patients 50 years of age and older with high myopia and untreated choroidal neovascularization. Ophthalmology 1999; 106: 2063–2067.
- Miki A, Ikuno Y, Asai T et al. Defects of the lamina Cribrosa in high myopia and glaucoma. PLoS ONE 2015; 10: e0137909.
- Chen SJ, Cheng CY, Li AF et al. Prevalence and associated risk factors of myopic maculopathy in elderly Chinese: the Shihpai eye study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2012; 53: 4868–4873.
- Holden BA, Fricke TR, Wilson DA et al. Global prevalence of myopia and high myopia and temporal trends from 2000 through 2050. Ophthalmology 2016; 123: 1036–1042.
- Hayashi K, Ohno‐matsui K, Shimada N et al. Long‐term pattern of progression of myopic maculopathy: a natural history study. Ophthalmology 2010; 117: 1595–1611, 1611.e1591–1594.
- Xu L, Wang YX, Wang S et al. Definition of high myopia by parapapillary atrophy. The Beijing Eye Study. Acta Ophthalmol 2010; 88: e350–e351.
- Ohsugi H, Ikuno Y, Shoujou T et al. Axial length changes in highly myopic eyes and influence of myopic macular complications in Japanese adults. PLoS ONE 2017; 12: e0180851.
- He M, Zeng J, Liu Y et al. Refractive error and visual impairment in urban children in southern China. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2004; 45: 793–799.
- Zhao J, Pan X, Sui R et al. Refractive error study in children: results from Shunyi District, China. Am J Ophthalmol 2000; 129: 427–435.
- Saw SM, Carkeet A, Chia KS et al. Component dependent risk factors for ocular parameters in Singapore Chinese children. Ophthalmology 2002; 109: 2065–2071.
- Saw SM, Tong L, Chua WH et al. Incidence and progression of myopia in Singaporean school children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2005; 46: 51–57.
- Logan NS, Shah P, Rudnicka AR et al. Childhood ethnic differences in ametropia and ocular biometry: the Aston Eye Study. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2011; 31: 550–558.
- French AN, Morgan IG, Burlutsky G et al. Prevalence and 5‐ to 6‐year incidence and progression of myopia and hyperopia in Australian schoolchildren. Ophthalmology 2013; 120: 1482–1491.
- Villarreal MG, Ohlsson J, Abrahamsson M et al. Myopisation: the refractive tendency in teenagers. Prevalence of myopia among young teenagers in Sweden. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2000; 78: 177–181.
- Plainis S, Moschandreas J, Nikolitsa P et al. Myopia and visual acuity impairment: a comparative study of Greek and Bulgarian school children. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2009; 29: 312–320.
- Vitale S, Sperduto RD, Ferris FL 3rd. Increased prevalence of myopia in the United States between 1971‐1972 and 1999‐2004. Arch Ophthalmol 2009; 127: 1632–1639.
- Multi‐Ethnic Pediatric Eye Disease Study Group. Prevalence of myopia and hyperopia in 6‐ to 72‐month‐old African American and Hispanic children: the multi‐ethnic pediatric eye disease study. Ophthalmology 2010; 117: 140–147.e143.
- Goh PP, Abqariyah Y, Pokharel GP et al. Refractive error and visual impairment in school‐age children in Gombak District, Malaysia. Ophthalmology 2005; 112: 678–685.
- Murthy GV, Gupta SK, Ellwein LB et al. Refractive error in children in an urban population in New Delhi. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2002; 43: 623–631.
- Pi LH, Chen L, Liu Q et al. Refractive status and prevalence of refractive errors in suburban school‐age children. Int J Med Sci 2010; 7: 342–353.
- Li Z, Xu K, Wu S et al. Population‐based survey of refractive error among school‐aged children in rural northern China: the Heilongjiang eye study. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol 2014; 42: 379–384.
- Chua SY, Sabanayagam C, Cheung YB et al. Age of onset of myopia predicts risk of high myopia in later childhood in myopic Singapore children. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2016; 36: 388–394.
- Maul E, Barroso S, Munoz SR et al. Refractive error study in children: results from La Florida, Chile. Am J Ophthalmol 2000; 129: 445–454.
- Pokharel GP, Negrel AD, Munoz SR et al. Refractive error study in children: results from Mechi zone, Nepal. Am J Ophthalmol 2000; 129: 436–444.
- Dandona R, Dandona L, Srinivas M et al. Refractive error in children in a rural population in India. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2002; 43: 615–622.
- Naidoo KS, Raghunandan A, Mashige KP et al. Refractive error and visual impairment in African children in South Africa. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2003; 44: 3764–3770.
- Robaei D, Rose K, Ojaimi E et al. Visual acuity and the causes of visual loss in a population‐based sample of 6‐year‐old Australian children. Ophthalmology 2005; 112: 1275–1282.
- Wu JF, Bi HS, Wang SM et al. Refractive error, visual acuity and causes of vision loss in children in Shandong, China The Shandong Children Eye Study. PLoS ONE 2013; 8: e82763.
- Dirani M, Chan YH, Gazzard G et al. Prevalence of refractive error in Singaporean Chinese children: the strabismus, amblyopia, and refractive error in young Singaporean children (STARS) study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010; 51: 1348–1355.
- Donovan L, Sankaridurg P, Ho A et al. Myopia progression rates in urban children wearing single‐vision spectacles. Optom Vis Sci 2012; 89: 27–32.
- Mutti DO, Sinnott LT, Mitchell GL et al. Relative peripheral refractive error and the risk of onset and progression of myopia in children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52: 199–205.
- Zhao J, Mao J, Luo R et al. The progression of refractive error in school‐age children: Shunyi district, China. Am J Ophthalmol 2002; 134: 735–743.
- Zhou WJ, Zhang YY, Li H et al. Five‐year progression of refractive errors and incidence of myopia in school‐aged children in Western China. J Epidemiol 2016; 26: 386–395.
- Fan DS, Lam DS, Lam RF et al. Prevalence, incidence, and progression of myopia of school children in Hong Kong. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2004; 45: 1071–1075.
- Matsumura H, Hirai H. Prevalence of myopia and refractive changes in students from 3 to 17 years of age. Surv Ophthalmol 1999; 44: S109–S115.
- Gao LQ, Liu W, Liang YB et al. Prevalence and characteristics of myopic retinopathy in a rural Chinese adult population: the Handan Eye Study. Arch Ophthalmol 2011; 129: 1199–1204.
- Asakuma T, Yasuda M, Ninomiya T et al. Prevalence and risk factors for myopic retinopathy in a Japanese population: the Hisayama study. Ophthalmology 2012; 119: 1760–1765.
- Koh VT, Nah GK, Chang L et al. Pathologic changes in highly myopic eyes of young males in Singapore. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2013; 42: 216–224.
- Marcus MW, de Vries MM, Junoy montolio FG et al. Myopia as a risk factor for open‐angle glaucoma: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Ophthalmology 2011; 118: 1989–1994.e1982.
- Shen L, Melles RB, Metlapally R et al. The Association of Refractive Error with glaucoma in a multiethnic population. Ophthalmology 2016; 123: 92–101.
- Chang MA, Congdon NG, Bykhovskaya I et al. The association between myopia and various subtypes of lens opacity: SEE (Salisbury eye evaluation) project. Ophthalmology 2005; 112: 1395–1401.
- Mukesh BN, Le A, Dimitrov PN et al. Development of cataract and associated risk factors: the Visual Impairment Project. Arch Ophthalmol 2006; 124: 79–85.
- Pan CW, Boey PY, Cheng CY et al. Myopia, axial length, and age‐related cataract: the Singapore Malay eye study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2013; 54: 4498–4502.
- The Eye Disease Case‐Control Study Group. Risk factors for idiopathic rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 137: 749–757.
- Tsai ASH, Wong CW, Lim L et al. Pediatric retinal detachment in an Asian population with high prevalence of myopia: clinical characteristics, surgical outcomes, and prognostic factors. Retina 2018; https://doi.org/10.1097/IAE.0000000000002238.
- Huang YC, Chu YC, Wang NK et al. Impact of etiology on the outcome of pediatric rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. Retina 2017; https://doi.org/10.1097/IAE.0000000000001908.
- Flitcroft DI. The complex interactions of retinal, optical and environmental factors in myopia aetiology. Prog Retin Eye Res 2012; 31: 622–660.
- Wolffsohn JS, Calossi A, Cho P et al. Global trends in myopia management attitudes and strategies in clinical practice. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2016; 39: 106–116.
- Hoogerheide J, Rempt F, Hoogenboom WP. Acquired myopia in young pilots. Ophthalmologica 1971; 163: 209–215.
- Rempt F, Hoogerheide J, Hoogenboom WP. Peripheral retinoscopy and the skiagram. Ophthalmologica 1971; 162: 1–10.
- Smith EL 3rd. Prentice award lecture 2010: a case for peripheral optical treatment strategies for myopia. Optom Vis Sci 2011; 88: 1029–1044.
- Mutti DO, Sholtz RI, Friedman NE et al. Peripheral refraction and ocular shape in children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2000; 41: 1022–1030.
- Lee TT, Cho P. Relative peripheral refraction in children: twelve‐month changes in eyes with different ametropias. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2013; 33: 283–293.
- Chen X, Sankaridurg P, Donovan L et al. Characteristics of peripheral refractive errors of myopic and non‐myopic Chinese eyes. Vision Res 2010; 50: 31–35.
- Seidemann A, Schaeffel F, Guirao A et al. Peripheral refractive errors in myopic, emmetropic, and hyperopic young subjects. J Opt Soc Am A Opt Image Sci Vis 2002; 19: 2363–2373.
- Atchison DA, Pritchard N, Schmid KL. Peripheral refraction along the horizontal and vertical visual fields in myopia. Vision Res 2006; 46: 1450–1458.
- Schmid GF. Variability of retinal steepness at the posterior pole in children 7‐15 years of age. Curr Eye Res 2003; 27: 61–68.
- Mutti DO, Hayes JR, Mitchell GL et al. Refractive error, axial length, and relative peripheral refractive error before and after the onset of myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2007; 48: 2510–2519.
- Sng CC, Lin XY, Gazzard G et al. Change in peripheral refraction over time in Singapore Chinese children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52: 7880–7887.
- Atchison DA, Li SM, Li H et al. Relative peripheral hyperopia does not predict development and progression of myopia in children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2015; 56: 6162–6170.
- Rosen R, Lundstrom L, Unsbo P et al. Have we misinterpreted the study of Hoogerheide et al. (1971)? Optom Vis Sci 2012; 89: 1235–1237.
- Atchison DA, Rosen R. The possible role of peripheral refraction in development of myopia. Optom Vis Sci 2016; 93: 1042–1044.
- Jessen GN. World wide summary of contact lens techniques. Am J Optom Arch Am Acad Optom 1962; 39: 680–682.
- Wlodyga R, Bryla C. Corneal molding: the easy way. Contact Lens Spectrum 1989; 4: 58–65.
- Winkler TD. Accelerated orthokeratology: a case report. Clin Exp Optom 1995; 78: 11–13.
- Swarbrick HA. Orthokeratology review and update. Clin Exp Optom 2006; 89: 124–143.
- Cho P, Cheung SW. Retardation of myopia in Orthokeratology (ROMIO) study: a 2‐year randomized clinical trial. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2012; 53: 7077–7085.
- Kakita T, Hiraoka T, Oshika T. Influence of overnight orthokeratology on axial elongation in childhood myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2011; 52: 2170–2174.
- Walline JJ, Jones LA, Sinnott LT. Corneal reshaping and myopia progression. Br J Ophthalmol 2009; 93: 1181–1185.
- Santodomingo‐rubido J, Villa‐collar C, Gilmartin B et al. Myopia control with orthokeratology contact lenses in Spain: refractive and biometric changes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2012; 53: 5060–5065.
- Chen C, Cheung SW, Cho P. Myopia control using toric orthokeratology (TO‐SEE study). Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2013; 54: 6510–6517.
- Charm J, Cho P. High myopia‐partial reduction orthokeratology: a 2‐year randomized study. Optom Vis Sci 2013; 90: 530–539.
- Cho P, Cheung SW, Edwards M. The longitudinal orthokeratology research in children (LORIC) in Hong Kong: a pilot study on refractive changes and myopic control. Curr Eye Res 2005; 30: 71–80.
- Queiros A, Gonzalez‐meijome JM, Jorge J et al. Peripheral refraction in myopic patients after orthokeratology. Optom Vis Sci 2010; 87: 323–329.
- Kang P, Swarbrick H. Peripheral refraction in myopic children wearing orthokeratology and gas‐permeable lenses. Optom Vis Sci 2011; 88: 476–482.
- Ticak A, Walline JJ. Peripheral optics with bifocal soft and corneal reshaping contact lenses. Optom Vis Sci 2013; 90: 3–8.
- Hiraoka T, Kakita T, Okamoto F et al. Long‐term effect of overnight orthokeratology on axial length elongation in childhood myopia: a 5‐year follow‐up study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2012; 53: 3913–3919.
- Santodomingo‐rubido J, Villa‐collar C, Gilmartin B et al. Long‐term efficacy of orthokeratology contact lens wear in controlling the progression of childhood myopia. Curr Eye Res 2017; 42: 713–720.
- Zhu MJ, Feng HY, He XG et al. The control effect of orthokeratology on axial length elongation in Chinese children with myopia. BMC Ophthalmol 2014; 14: 141.
- Chen CC, Cheung SW, Cho P. Toric orthokeratology for highly astigmatic children. Optom Vis Sci 2012; 89: 849–855.
- Cho P, Cheung SW. Protective role of orthokeratology in reducing risk of rapid axial elongation: a reanalysis of data from the ROMIO and TO‐SEE studies. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2017; 58: 1411–1416.
- Charm J, Cho P. High myopia‐partial reduction orthokeratology (HM‐PRO): study design. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2013; 36: 164–170.
- Santodomingo‐rubido J, Villa‐collar C, Gilmartin B et al. Orthokeratology vs. spectacles: adverse events and discontinuations. Optom Vis Sci 2012; 89: 1133–1139.
- Stapleton F, Carnt N. Contact lens‐related microbial keratitis: how have epidemiology and genetics helped us with pathogenesis and prophylaxis. Eye (Lond) 2012; 26: 185–193.
- Young AL, Leung KS, Tsim N et al. Risk factors, microbiological profile, and treatment outcomes of pediatric microbial keratitis in a tertiary care hospital in Hong Kong. Am J Ophthalmol 2013; 156: 1040–1044.e1042.
- Bullimore MA, Sinnott LT, Jones‐jordan LA. The risk of microbial keratitis with overnight corneal reshaping lenses. Optom Vis Sci 2013; 90: 937–944.
- Watt KG, Swarbrick HA. Trends in microbial keratitis associated with orthokeratology. Eye Contact Lens 2007; 33: 373–377.
- Watt K, Swarbrick HA. Microbial keratitis in overnight orthokeratology: review of the first 50 cases. Eye Contact Lens 2005; 31: 201–208.
- Liu YM, Xie P. The safety of orthokeratology‐a systematic review. Eye Contact Lens 2016; 42: 35–42.
- Li SM, Kang MT, Wu SS et al. Efficacy, safety and acceptability of orthokeratology on slowing axial elongation in myopic children by meta‐analysis. Curr Eye Res 2016; 41: 600–608.
- Cho P, Cheung SW, Mountford J et al. Good clinical practice in orthokeratology. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2008; 31: 17–28.
- Chia A, Chua WH, Wen L et al. Atropine for the treatment of childhood myopia: changes after stopping atropine 0.01%, 0.1% and 0.5%. Am J Ophthalmol 2014; 157: 451–457.e451.
- Tong L, Huang XL, Koh AL et al. Atropine for the treatment of childhood myopia: effect on myopia progression after cessation of atropine. Ophthalmology 2009; 116: 572–579.
- Cho P, Cheung SW. Discontinuation of orthokeratology on eyeball elongation (DOEE). Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2017; 40: 82–87.
- Charman WN, Mountford J, Atchison DA et al. Peripheral refraction in orthokeratology patients. Optom Vis Sci 2006; 83: 641–648.
- Queiros A, Lopes‐ferreira D, Gonzalez‐meijome JM. Astigmatic peripheral defocus with different contact lenses: review and meta‐analysis. Curr Eye Res 2016; 41: 1005–1015.
- Adler D, Millodot M. The possible effect of undercorrection on myopic progression in children. Clin Exp Optom 2006; 89: 315–321.
- Chung K, Mohidin N, O'leary DJ. Undercorrection of myopia enhances rather than inhibits myopia progression. Vision Res 2002; 42: 2555–2559.
- Walline JJ, Jones LA, Sinnott L et al. A randomized trial of the effect of soft contact lenses on myopia progression in children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2008; 49: 4702–4706.
- Walline JJ, Jones LA, Mutti DO et al. A randomized trial of the effects of rigid contact lenses on myopia progression. Arch Ophthalmol 2004; 122: 1760–1766.
- Sankaridurg P, Donovan L, Varnas S et al. Spectacle lenses designed to reduce progression of myopia: 12‐month results. Optom Vis Sci 2010; 87: 631–641.
- Paune J, Thivent S, Armengol J et al. Changes in peripheral refraction, higher‐order aberrations, and accommodative lag with a radial refractive gradient contact lens in young myopes. Eye Contact Lens 2016; 42: 380–387.
- Paune J, Queiros A, Quevedo L et al. Peripheral myopization and visual performance with experimental rigid gas permeable and soft contact lens design. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2014; 37: 455–460.
- Lopes‐ferreira D, Ribeiro C, Neves H et al. Peripheral refraction with dominant design multifocal contact lenses in young myopes. J Optom 2013; 6: 85–94.
- Kang P, Fan Y, Oh K et al. The effect of multifocal soft contact lenses on peripheral refraction. Optom Vis Sci 2013; 90: 658–666.
- Rosen R, Jaeken B, Lindskoog petterson A et al. Evaluating the peripheral optical effect of multifocal contact lenses. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2012; 32: 527–534.
- Nickla DL, Wallman J. The multifunctional choroid. Prog Retin Eye Res 2010; 29: 144–168.
- Zhang Z, Zhou Y, Xie Z et al. The effect of topical atropine on the choroidal thickness of healthy children. Sci Rep 2016; 6: 34936.
- Chen Z, Xue F, Zhou J et al. Effects of orthokeratology on choroidal thickness and axial length. Optom Vis Sci 2016; 93: 1064–1071.
- Li Z, Cui D, Hu Y et al. Choroidal thickness and axial length changes in myopic children treated with orthokeratology. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2017; 40: 417–423.
- Gardner DJ, Walline JJ, Mutti DO. Choroidal thickness and peripheral myopic defocus during orthokeratology. Optom Vis Sci 2015; 92: 579–588.
- Cho P, Boost MV. Blanket therapy, one size fits all, or personal tailoring for myopia control? Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2018; 41: 403–404.
- Loh KL, Lu Q, Tan D et al. Risk factors for progressive myopia in the atropine therapy for myopia study. Am J Ophthalmol 2015; 159: 945–949.
- Chia A, Chua WH, Cheung YB et al. Atropine for the treatment of childhood myopia: safety and efficacy of 0.5%, 0.1%, and 0.01% doses (atropine for the treatment of myopia 2). Ophthalmology 2012; 119: 347–354.
- Shih YF, Hsiao CK, Chen CJ et al. An intervention trial on efficacy of atropine and multi‐focal glasses in controlling myopic progression. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2001; 79: 233–236.
- Yam JC, Jiang Y, Tang SM et al. Low‐Concentration Atropine for Myopia Progression (LAMP) Study: A randomized, double‐blinded, placebo‐controlled trial of 0.05%, 0.025%, and 0.01% atropine eye drops in Myopia control. Ophthalmology 2018; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.05.029.
- Galvis V, Tello A, Parra MM et al. Topical atropine in the control of myopia. Med Hypothesis Discov Innov Ophthalmol 2016; 5: 78–88.
- Kinoshita N, Konno Y, Hamada N et al. Additive effects of orthokeratology and atropine 0.01% ophthalmic solution in slowing axial elongation in children with myopia: first year results. Jpn J Ophthalmol 2018; 62: 544–553.