The diagnosis and management of temporal arteritis

REFERENCES

• Dejaco C, Brouwer E, Mason JC et al. Giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: current challenges and opportunities. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2017; 13: 578–592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez‐gay MA, Vazquez‐rodriguez TR, Lopez‐diaz MJ et al. Epidemiology of giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. Arthritis Rheum 2009; 61: 1454–1461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller NR. Visual manifestations of temporal arteritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 2001; 27: 781–797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Zimmerman B. Ocular manifestations of giant cell arteritis. Am J Ophthalmol 1998; 125: 509–520.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nuenninghoff DM, Hunder GG, Christianson TJ et al. Incidence and predictors of large‐artery complication (aortic aneurysm, aortic dissection, and/or large‐artery stenosis) in patients with giant cell arteritis: a population‐based study over 50-years. Arthritis Rheum 2003; 48: 3522–3531.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez‐gay MA, Vazquez‐rodriguez TR, Gomez‐acebo I et al. Strokes at time of disease diagnosis in a series of 287 patients with biopsy‐proven giant cell arteritis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2009; 88: 227–235.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruegg S, Engelter S, Jeanneret C et al. Bilateral vertebral artery occlusion resulting from giant cell arteritis: report of 3 cases and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore) 2003; 82: 1–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy S. Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis: an in‐depth look at diagnosis and treatment. J Am Acad Nurse Pract 2012; 24: 277–285.
   Google Scholar
• Gonzalez‐gay MA, Miranda‐filloy JA, Lopez‐diaz MJ et al. Giant cell arteritis in northwestern Spain: a 25‐year epidemiologic study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2007; 86: 61–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salvarani C, Cantini F, Hunder GG. Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant‐cell arteritis. Lancet 2008; 372: 234–245.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kermani TA, Schafer VS, Crowson CS et al. Increase in age at onset of giant cell arteritis: a population‐based study. Ann Rheum Dis 2010; 69: 780–781.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kawasaki A, Purvin V. Giant cell arteritis: an updated review. Acta Ophthalmol 2009; 87: 13–32.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salvarani C, Crowson CS, O'fallon WM et al. Reappraisal of the epidemiology of giant cell arteritis in Olmsted County, Minnesota, over a fifty‐year period. Arthritis Rheum 2004; 51: 264–268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watts RA, Gonzalez‐gay MA, Lane SE et al. Geoepidemiology of systemic vasculitis: comparison of the incidence in two regions of Europe. Ann Rheum Dis 2001; 60: 170–172.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boesen P, Sorensen SF. Giant cell arteritis, temporal arteritis, and polymyalgia rheumatica in a Danish county. A prospective investigation, 1982‐1985. Arthritis Rheum 1987; 30: 294–299.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noltorp S, Svensson B. High incidence of polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis in a Swedish community. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1991; 9: 351–355.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franzen P, Sutinen S, von Knorring J. Giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica in a region of Finland: an epidemiologic, clinical and pathologic study, 1984‐1988. J Rheumatol 1992; 19: 273–276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baldursson O, Steinsson K, Bjornsson J et al. Giant cell arteritis in Iceland. An epidemiologic and histopathologic analysis. Arthritis Rheum 1994; 37: 1007–1012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gran JT, Myklebust G. The incidence of polymyalgia rheumatica and temporal arteritis in the county of Aust Agder, south Norway: a prospective study 1987‐94. J Rheumatol 1997; 24: 1739–1743.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haugeberg G, Paulsen PQ, Bie RB. Temporal arteritis in Vest Agder County in southern Norway: incidence and clinical findings. J Rheumatol 2000; 27: 2624–2627.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mader TH, Werner RP, Chamberlain DG et al. Giant cell arteritis in Alaska natives. Can J Ophthalmol 2009; 44: 53–56.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sonnenblick M, Nesher G, Friedlander Y et al. Giant cell arteritis in Jerusalem: a 12‐year epidemiological study. Br J Rheumatol 1994; 33: 938–941.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Salvarani C, Pipitone N, Versari A et al. Clinical features of polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2012; 8: 509–521.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bas‐lando M, Breuer GS, Berkun Y et al. The incidence of giant cell arteritis in Jerusalem over a 25‐year period: annual and seasonal fluctuations. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2007; 25: S15–S17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaudhry IA, Shamsi FA, Elzaridi E et al. Epidemiology of giant‐cell arteritis in an Arab population: a 22‐year study. Br J Ophthalmol 2007; 91: 715–718.
   Google Scholar
• Smith CA, Fidler WJ, Pinals RS. The epidemiology of giant cell arteritis. Report of a ten‐year study in Shelby County, Tennessee. Arthritis Rheum 1983; 26: 1214–1219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobayashi S, Yano T, Matsumoto Y et al. Clinical and epidemiologic analysis of giant cell (temporal) arteritis from a nationwide survey in 1998 in Japan: the first government‐supported nationwide survey. Arthritis Rheum 2003; 49: 594–598.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowson CS, Matteson EL, Myasoedova E et al. The lifetime risk of adult‐onset rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory autoimmune rheumatic diseases. Arthritis Rheum 2011; 63: 633–639.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostberg G. An arteritis with special reference to polymyalgia arteritica. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand Suppl 1973; 237: 231–259.
   Google Scholar
• Salvarani C, Gabriel SE, O'fallon WM et al. The incidence of giant cell arteritis in Olmsted County, Minnesota: apparent fluctuations in a cyclic pattern. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123: 192–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salvarani C, Gabriel SE, O'fallon WM et al. Epidemiology of polymyalgia rheumatica in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1970‐1991. Arthritis Rheum 1995; 38: 369–373.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez‐gay MA, Garcia‐porrua C, Vazquez‐caruncho M et al. The spectrum of polymyalgia rheumatica in northwestern Spain: incidence and analysis of variables associated with relapse in a 10 year study. J Rheumatol 1999; 26: 1326–1332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gran JT, Myklebust G, Wilsgaard T et al. Survival in polymyalgia rheumatica and temporal arteritis: a study of 398 cases and matched population controls. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2001; 40: 1238–1242.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liozon E, Ouattara B, Rhaiem K et al. Familial aggregation in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: a comprehensive literature review including 4 new families. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2009; 27: S89–S94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fietta P, Manganelli P, Zanetti A et al. Familial giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: aggregation in 2 families. J Rheumatol 2002; 29: 1551–1555.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'brien JP, Regan W. A study of elastic tissue and actinic radiation in "aging," temporal arteritis, polymyalgia rheumatica, and atherosclerosis. The actinic storm in the modern world. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991; 24: 765–776.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calamia KT, Hunder GG. Giant cell arteritis (temporal arteritis) presenting as fever of undetermined origin. Arthritis Rheum 1981; 24: 1414–1418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• George A, Lim NS, Jain NS et al. "Diagnostic algorithm for patients with suspected Giant cell arteritis" useful, but no substitute for thorough histopathology. J Neuroophthalmol 2016; 36: 343.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez‐gay MA, Barros S, Lopez‐diaz MJ et al. Giant cell arteritis: disease patterns of clinical presentation in a series of 240 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 2005; 84: 269–276.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Myklebust G, Gran JT. A prospective study of 287 patients with polymyalgia rheumatica and temporal arteritis: clinical and laboratory manifestations at onset of disease and at the time of diagnosis. Br J Rheumatol 1996; 35: 1161–1168.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rahman W, Rahman FZ. Giant cell (temporal) arteritis: an overview and update. Surv Ophthalmol 2005; 50: 415–428.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt W, Gromnica‐ihle E. What is the best approach to diagnosing large‐vessel vasculitis? Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2005; 19: 223–242.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones JG. Clinical features of giant cell arteritis. Baillieres Clin Rheumatol 1991; 5: 413–430.
   Google Scholar
• Knockaert DC, Vanneste LJ, Bobbaers HJ. Fever of unknown origin in elderly patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41: 1187–1192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayreh SS, Podhajsky PA, Raman R et al. Giant cell arteritis: validity and reliability of various diagnostic criteria. Am J Ophthalmol 1997; 123: 285–296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weyand CM, Goronzy JJ. Giant‐cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. Ann Intern Med 2003; 139: 505–515.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salvarani C, Macchioni P, Zizzi F et al. Epidemiologic and immunogenetic aspects of polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis in northern Italy. Arthritis Rheum 1991; 34: 351–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabriel SE, O'fallon WM, Achkar AA et al. The use of clinical characteristics to predict the results of temporal artery biopsy among patients with suspected giant cell arteritis. J Rheumatol 1995; 22: 93–96.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuo CH, Mccluskey P, Fraser CL. Chewing gum test for jaw claudication in Giant‐cell arteritis. N Engl J Med 2016; 374: 1794–1795.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubey R, Chui J, Langford‐smith J et al. Jaw dropping: the necessity of a history and a biopsy in suspected temporal arteritis. Neuro‐Ophthalmology 2011; 35: 156–157.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brack A, Martinez‐taboada V, Stanson A et al. Disease pattern in cranial and large‐vessel giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum 1999; 42: 311–317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prieto‐gonzalez S, Arguis P, Garcia‐martinez A et al. Large vessel involvement in biopsy‐proven giant cell arteritis: prospective study in 40 newly diagnosed patients using CT angiography. Ann Rheum Dis 2012; 71: 1170–1176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghinoi A, Pipitone N, Nicolini A et al. Large‐vessel involvement in recent‐onset giant cell arteritis: a case‐control colour‐Doppler sonography study. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2012; 51: 730–734.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez‐gay MA, Garcia‐porrua C, Pineiro A et al. Aortic aneurysm and dissection in patients with biopsy‐proven giant cell arteritis from northwestern Spain: a population‐based study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2004; 83: 335–341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garcia‐martinez A, Hernandez‐rodriguez J, Arguis P et al. Development of aortic aneurysm/dilatation during the followup of patients with giant cell arteritis: a cross‐sectional screening of fifty‐four prospectively followed patients. Arthritis Rheum 2008; 59: 422–430.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt J, Sunesen K, Kornum JB et al. Predictors for pathologically confirmed aortitis after resection of the ascending aorta: a 12‐year Danish nationwide population‐based cross‐sectional study. Arthritis Res Ther 2011; 13: R87.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiszniewska M, Devuyst G, Bogousslavsky J. Giant cell arteritis as a cause of first‐ever stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2007; 24: 226–230.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larson TS, Hall S, Hepper NG et al. Respiratory tract symptoms as a clue to giant cell arteritis. Ann Intern Med 1984; 101: 594–597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lim NS, Singh N, Jain NS et al. The temporal arteritis proforma: should cough be included? Rheumatol Int 2016; 36: 1701–1703.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brodmann M, Dorr A, Hafner F et al. Tongue necrosis as first symptom of giant cell arteritis (GCA). Clin Rheumatol 2009; 28: S47–S49.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsianakas A, Ehrchen JM, Presser D et al. Scalp necrosis in giant cell arteritis: case report and review of the relevance of this cutaneous sign of large‐vessel vasculitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2009; 61: 701–706.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernandez‐rodriguez J, Tan CD, Molloy ES et al. Vasculitis involving the breast: a clinical and histopathologic analysis of 34 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 2008; 87: 61–69.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marchionni N, Di bari M, Ferrucci L et al. Giant‐cell arteritis causing severe aortic regurgitation secondary to aneurysm of the ascending aorta–a case report. Angiology 1987; 38: 712–716.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nesi G, Anichini C, Pedemonte E et al. Giant cell arteritis presenting with annuloaortic ectasia. Chest 2002; 121: 1365–1367.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bablekos GD, Michaelides SA, Karachalios GN et al. Pericardial involvement as an atypical manifestation of giant cell arteritis: report of a clinical case and literature review. Am J Med Sci 2006; 332: 198–204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen JJ, Leavitt JA, Fang C et al. Evaluating the incidence of arteritic ischemic optic neuropathy and other causes of vision loss from giant cell arteritis. Ophthalmology 2016; 123: 1999–2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh N, George A, Tan J et al. Giant cell arteritis with arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy is bilateral until proven otherwise. J Neuroophthalmol 2016; 36: 479.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jonasson F, Cullen JF, Elton RA. Temporal arteritis. A 14‐year epidemiological, clinical and prognostic study. Scott Med J 1979; 24: 111–117.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Danesh‐meyer H, Savino PJ, Gamble GG. Poor prognosis of visual outcome after visual loss from giant cell arteritis. Ophthalmology 2005; 112: 1098–1103.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez‐gay MA, Garcia‐porrua C, Llorca J et al. Visual manifestations of giant cell arteritis. Trends and clinical spectrum in 161 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 2000; 79: 283–292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glutz von blotzheim S, Borruat FX. Neuro‐ophthalmic complications of biopsy‐proven giant cell arteritis. Eur J Ophthalmol 1997; 7: 375–382.
   Google Scholar
• Font C, Cid MC, Coll‐vinent B et al. Clinical features in patients with permanent visual loss due to biopsy‐proven giant cell arteritis. Br J Rheumatol 1997; 36: 251–254.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amos JF. Differential diagnosis of common etiologies of photopsia. J Am Optom Assoc 1999; 70: 485–504.
   Google Scholar
• Ghanchi FD, Dutton GN. Current concepts in giant cell (temporal) arteritis. Surv Ophthalmol 1997; 42: 99–123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guyer DR, Miller NR, Auer CL et al. The risk of cerebrovascular and cardiovascular disease in patients with anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Arch Ophthalmol 1985; 103: 1136–1142.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Salvarani C, Cimino L, Macchioni P et al. Risk factors for visual loss in an Italian population‐based cohort of patients with giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum 2005; 53: 293–297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayreh SS. Ocular vascular occlusive disorders: natural history of visual outcome. Prog Retin Eye Res 2014; 41: 1–25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohan K, Gupta A, Jain IS et al. Bilateral central retinal artery occlusion in occult temporal arteritis. J Clin Neuroophthalmol 1989; 9: 270–272.
   Google Scholar
• Fineman MS, Savino PJ, Federman JL et al. Branch retinal artery occlusion as the initial sign of giant cell arteritis. Am J Ophthalmol 1996; 122: 428–430.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galasso JM, Jay WM. An occult case of giant cell arteritis presenting with combined anterior ischemic optic neuropathy and cilioretinal artery occlusion. Semin Ophthalmol 2004; 19: 75–77.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sadda SR, Nee M, Miller NR et al. Clinical spectrum of posterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Am J Ophthalmol 2001; 132: 743–750.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkinson IM, Russell RW. Arteries of the head and neck in giant cell arteritis. A pathological study to show the pattern of arterial involvement. Arch Neurol 1972; 27: 378–391.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Caselli RJ, Hunder GG. Neurologic complications of giant cell (temporal) arteritis. Semin Neurol 1994; 14: 349–353.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barricks ME, Traviesa DB, Glaser JS et al. Ophthalmoplegia in cranial arteritis. Brain 1977; 100: 209–221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahmad I, Zaman M. Bilateral internuclear ophthalmoplegia: an initial presenting sign of giant cell arteritis. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47: 734–736.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zamarbide ID, Maxit MJ. Fisher's one and half syndrome with facial palsy as clinical presentation of giant cell temporal arteritis. Medicina (B Aires) 2000; 60: 245–248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smetana GW, Shmerling RH. Does this patient have temporal arteritis? JAMA 2002; 287: 92–101.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kermani TA, Warrington KJ, Crowson CS et al. Large‐vessel involvement in giant cell arteritis: a population‐based cohort study of the incidence‐trends and prognosis. Ann Rheum Dis 2013; 72: 1989–1994.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez‐gay MA, Lopez‐diaz MJ, Barros S et al. Giant cell arteritis: laboratory tests at the time of diagnosis in a series of 240 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 2005; 84: 277–290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes GS, Stinson IN. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate and age. Arch Ophthalmol 1976; 94: 939–940.
   Google Scholar
• Miller A, Green M, Robinson D. Simple rule for calculating normal erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1983; 286: 266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bathon J, Graves J, Jens P et al. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate in end‐stage renal failure. Am J Kidney Dis 1987; 10: 34–40.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leff RD, Akre SP. Obesity and the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Ann Intern Med 1986; 105: 143.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jurado RL. Why shouldn't we determine the erythrocyte sedimentation rate? Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 548–549.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liozon E, Jauberteau‐marchan MO, Ly K et al. Giant cell arteritis with a low erythrocyte sedimentation rate: comments on the article by Salvarani and Hunder. Arthritis Rheum 2002; 47: 692–693.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kermani TA, Schmidt J, Crowson CS et al. Utility of erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C‐reactive protein for the diagnosis of giant cell arteritis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2012; 41: 866–871.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salvarani C, Hunder GG. Giant cell arteritis with low erythrocyte sedimentation rate: frequency of occurence in a population‐based study. Arthritis Rheum 2001; 45: 140–145.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Niederkohr RD, Levin LA. Management of the patient with suspected temporal arteritis a decision‐analytic approach. Ophthalmology 2005; 112: 744–756.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ypsilantis E, Courtney ED, Chopra N et al. Importance of specimen length during temporal artery biopsy. Br J Surg 2011; 98: 1556–1560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernandez‐rodriguez J, Murgia G, Villar I et al. Description and validation of histological patterns and proposal of a dynamic model of inflammatory infiltration in giant‐cell arteritis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016; 95: e2368.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein RG, Campbell RJ, Hunder GG et al. Skip lesions in temporal arteritis. Mayo Clin Proc 1976; 51: 504–510.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cavazza A, Muratore F, Boiardi L et al. Inflamed temporal artery: histologic findings in 354 biopsies, with clinical correlations. Am J Surg Pathol 2014; 38: 1360–1370.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Achkar AA, Lie JT, Hunder GG et al. How does previous corticosteroid treatment affect the biopsy findings in giant cell (temporal) arteritis? Ann Intern Med 1994; 120: 987–992.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narvaez J, Bernad B, Roig‐vilaseca D et al. Influence of previous corticosteroid therapy on temporal artery biopsy yield in giant cell arteritis. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2007; 37: 13–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dasgupta B, Borg FA, Hassan N et al. BSR and BHPR guidelines for the management of giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2010; 49: 1594–1597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakobsson K, Jacobsson L, Mohammad AJ et al. The effect of clinical features and glucocorticoids on biopsy findings in giant cell arteritis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2016; 17: 363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt WA, Kraft HE, Vorpahl K et al. Color duplex ultrasonography in the diagnosis of temporal arteritis. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 1336–1342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arida A, Kyprianou M, Kanakis M et al. The diagnostic value of ultrasonography‐derived edema of the temporal artery wall in giant cell arteritis: a second meta‐analysis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2010; 11: 44.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aschwanden M, Imfeld S, Staub D et al. The ultrasound compression sign to diagnose temporal giant cell arteritis shows an excellent interobserver agreement. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2015; 33: Se‐113‐115.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karassa FB, Matsagas MI, Schmidt WA et al. Meta‐analysis: test performance of ultrasonography for giant‐cell arteritis. Ann Intern Med 2005; 142: 359–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buttgereit F, Dejaco C, Matteson EL et al. Polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis: a systematic review. JAMA 2016; 315: 2442–2458.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilyk JR, Murchison AP, Leiby BT et al. The utility of color duplex ultrasonography in the diagnosis of giant cell arteritis: a prospective, masked study. (An American Ophthalmological Society thesis). Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 2017; 115: T9.
   Google Scholar
• Schmidt WA. Role of ultrasound in the understanding and management of vasculitis. Ther Adv Musculoskeletal Dis 2014; 6: 39–47.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Duftner C, Dejaco C, Sepriano A et al. Imaging in diagnosis, outcome prediction and monitoring of large vessel vasculitis: a systematic literature review and meta‐analysis informing the EULAR recommendations. RMD Open 2018; 4: e000612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klink T, Geiger J, Both M et al. Giant cell arteritis: diagnostic accuracy of MR imaging of superficial cranial arteries in initial diagnosis‐results from a multicenter trial. Radiology 2014; 273: 844–852.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hay B, Mariano‐goulart D, Bourdon A et al. Diagnostic performance of (18)F‐FDG PET‐CT for large vessel involvement assessment in patients with suspected giant cell arteritis and negative temporal artery biopsy. Ann Nucl Med 2019; 33: 512–520.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Boysson H, Dumont A, Liozon E et al. Giant‐cell arteritis: concordance study between aortic CT angiography and FDG‐PET/CT in detection of large‐vessel involvement. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2017; 44: 2274–2279.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hauenstein C, Reinhard M, Geiger J et al. Effects of early corticosteroid treatment on magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasonography findings in giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2012; 51: 1999–2003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lie JT. When is arteritis of the temporal arteries not temporal arteritis? J Rheumatol 1994; 21: 186–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cid MC, Campo E, Ercilla G et al. Immunohistochemical analysis of lymphoid and macrophage cell subsets and their immunologic activation markers in temporal arteritis. Influence of corticosteroid treatment. Arthritis Rheum 1989; 32: 884–893.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang AL, Raven ML, Surapaneni K et al. Studies on the histopathology of temporal arteritis. Ocul Oncol Pathol 2017; 3: 60–65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ninan J, Lester S, Hill C. Giant cell arteritis. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2016; 30: 169–188.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bienvenu B, Ly KH, Lambert M et al. Management of giant cell arteritis: recommendations of the French Study Group for Large Vessel Vasculitis (GEFA). Rev Med Interne 2016; 37: 154–165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mukhtyar C, Guillevin L, Cid MC et al. EULAR recommendations for the management of large vessel vasculitis. Ann Rheum Dis 2009; 68: 318–323.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proven A, Gabriel SE, Orces C et al. Glucocorticoid therapy in giant cell arteritis: duration and adverse outcomes. Arthritis Rheum 2003; 49: 703–708.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kermani TA, Warrington KJ, Cuthbertson D et al. Disease relapses among patients with giant cell arteritis: a prospective, longitudinal cohort study. J Rheumatol 2015; 42: 1213–1217.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martinez‐lado L, Calvino‐diaz C, Pineiro A et al. Relapses and recurrences in giant cell arteritis: a population‐based study of patients with biopsy‐proven disease from northwestern Spain. Medicine (Baltimore) 2011; 90: 186–193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alba MA, Garcia‐martinez A, Prieto‐gonzalez S et al. Relapses in patients with giant cell arteritis: prevalence, characteristics, and associated clinical findings in a longitudinally followed cohort of 106 patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 2014; 93: 194–201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Labarca C, Koster MJ, Crowson CS et al. Predictors of relapse and treatment outcomes in biopsy‐proven giant cell arteritis: a retrospective cohort study. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2016; 55: 347–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Restuccia G, Boiardi L, Cavazza A et al. Flares in biopsy‐proven giant cell arteritis in northern Italy: characteristics and predictors in a long‐term follow‐up study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2016; 95: e3524.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman GS. Giant cell arteritis. Ann Intern Med 2016; 165: ITC65–ITC80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muratore F, Kermani TA, Crowson CS et al. Large‐vessel giant cell arteritis: a cohort study. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2015; 54: 463–470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aiello PD, Trautmann JC, Mcphee TJ et al. Visual prognosis in giant cell arteritis. Ophthalmology 1993; 100: 550–555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayreh SS, Zimmerman B. Visual deterioration in giant cell arteritis patients while on high doses of corticosteroid therapy. Ophthalmology 2003; 110: 1204–1215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman GS, Cid MC, Hellmann DB et al. A multicenter, randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial of adjuvant methotrexate treatment for giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum 2002; 46: 1309–1318.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jover JA, Hernandez‐garcia C, Morado IC et al. Combined treatment of giant‐cell arteritis with methotrexate and prednisone. A randomized, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 106–114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spiera RF, Mitnick HJ, Kupersmith M et al. A prospective, double‐blind, randomized, placebo controlled trial of methotrexate in the treatment of giant cell arteritis (GCA). Clin Exp Rheumatol 2001; 19: 495–501.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahr AD, Jover JA, Spiera RF et al. Adjunctive methotrexate for treatment of giant cell arteritis: an individual patient data meta‐analysis. Arthritis Rheum 2007; 56: 2789–2797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villiger PM, Adler S, Kuchen S et al. Tocilizumab for induction and maintenance of remission in giant cell arteritis: a phase 2, randomised, double‐blind, placebo‐controlled trial. Lancet 2016; 387: 1921–1927.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone JH, Tuckwell K, Dimonaco S et al. Trial of tocilizumab in giant‐cell arteritis. N Engl J Med 2017; 377: 317–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Adler S, Reichenbach S, Gloor A et al. Risk of relapse after discontinuation of tocilizumab therapy in giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2019; 58: 1639–1643.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Low C, Conway R. Current advances in the treatment of giant cell arteritis: the role of biologics. Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis 2019; 11: 1–11.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De silva M, Hazleman BL. Azathioprine in giant cell arteritis/polymyalgia rheumatica: a double‐blind study. Ann Rheum Dis 1986; 45: 136–138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seror R, Baron G, Hachulla E et al. Adalimumab for steroid sparing in patients with giant‐cell arteritis: results of a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Ann Rheum Dis 2014; 73: 2074–2081.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dubey R, Bhardwaj G, Sanli E et al. Temporal arteritis—reversal of blindness using anticoagulation and steroids. Neuro‐Ophthalmology 2011; 35: 264–268.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nesher G, Berkun Y, Mates M et al. Low‐dose aspirin and prevention of cranial ischemic complications in giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum 2004; 50: 1332–1337.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee MS, Smith SD, Galor A et al. Antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy in patients with giant cell arteritis. Arthritis Rheum 2006; 54: 3306–3309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Narvaez J, Bernad B, Gomez‐vaquero C et al. Impact of antiplatelet therapy in the development of severe ischemic complications and in the outcome of patients with giant cell arteritis. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2008; 26: S57–S62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salvarani C, Della bella C, Cimino L et al. Risk factors for severe cranial ischaemic events in an Italian population‐based cohort of patients with giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2009; 48: 250–253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayreh SS, Zimmerman B, Kardon RH. Visual improvement with corticosteroid therapy in giant cell arteritis. Report of a large study and review of literature. Acta Ophthalmol Scand 2002; 80: 355–367.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Singh AG, Kermani TA, Crowson CS et al. Visual manifestations in giant cell arteritis: trend over 5 decades in a population‐based cohort. J Rheumatol 2015; 42: 309–315.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzalez‐gay MA, Blanco R, Abraira V et al. Giant cell arteritis in Lugo, Spain, is associated with low longterm mortality. J Rheumatol 1997; 24: 2171–2176.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar