SPATIAL REORGANIZATION: A MODEL AND CONCEPT

References

• 1 This study represents a revision of portions of the author's doctoral dissertation, Spatial Reorganization and Time-space Convergence, completed at Michigan State University in 1966. For their kind assistance, the author extends a special thanks to Dr. Julian Wolpert, Dr. Allen K. Philbrick, Dr. Robert C. Brown (Simon Fraser University), and to Dr. Donald A. Blome. This investigation was supported (in part) by a Public Health Service fellowship (number 1-F1-CH-31, 220) from the Division of Community Health Services. The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U. S. Air Force or the Department of Defense.
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• 2 J. M. Blaut, “Space and Process,”The Professional Geographer, Vol. 13 (July, 1961), p. 4.
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• 3 This notion, first recognized by the physicists and physical philosophers, has been acknowledged by many geographers and other social scientists, including W. J. Cahnman, “Outline of a Theory of Area Studies,”Annals, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 38 (1948), pp. 233 43; A. H. Hawley, Human Ecology: A Theory of Community Structure (New York: The Ronald Press, 1950), p. 288; W. Isard, Location and Space-Economy (Cambridge, Mass.: The Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1956), p. 11; F. Lukermann, “The Role of Theory in Geographical Inquiry,”The Professional Geographer, Vol. 13 (March, 1961), p. 1; and R. L. Morrill, “The Development of Spatial Distributions of Towns in Sweden: A Historical Predictive Approach,”Annals, Association of American Gegraphers, Vol. 53 (1963), pp. 2 3.
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• 4 The term “spatial reorganization” is not new. It has been used by W. L. Garrison. See “Notes on Benefits of Highway Improvements,” in W. L. Garrison, B. J. L. Berry, D. F. Marble, J. D. Nystuen, R. L. Morrill, Studies of Highway Development and Geographic Change (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1959), p. 23. This and other impact studies of the post-1956 period suggests that although the term has not seen wide use, the concept is one of immediate concern.
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• 5 K. A. Fox, “The Study of Interactions Between Agriculture and the Nonfarm Economy: Local, Regional and National,”Journal of Farm Economics, Vol. 44 (February, 1962), pp. 1 34.
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• 7 The terms place and area are used as designators of areal scale. In this study they are used interchangeably.
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• 8 W. L. Garrison, “Connectivity of the Interstate Highway System,”Papers and Proceedings of the Regional Science Association, Vol. 6 (1960), pp. 121 37; K. J. Kansky, Structure of Transportation Networks (Chicago: Department of Geography Research Paper No. 84, University of Chicago Press, 1963).
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• 9 For a more thorough discussion of time-space convergence, see D. G. Janelle, “Central Place Development in a Time-space Framework,”The Professional Geographer, Vol. 20 (1968), pp. 5 10.
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• 10 For a discussion on the law of comparative advantage, see P. A. Samuelson, “The Gains from International Trade,”Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, Vol. 5 (May 1939).
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• 11 E. L. Ullman, “The Role of Transportation and the Bases of Interaction,” in W. L. Thomas, Jr. (Ed.), Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), pp. 862–80.
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• 12 For a more complete treatment of this notion, see Ullman, op. cit., footnote 11.
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• 13 The application of the feedback concept in this context was suggested to the author by James H. Stine, Department of Geology and Geography, Oklahoma State University.
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• 14 An excellent discussion on both positive and negative feedback systems is provided by M. Maruyama, “The Second Cybernetics: Deviation-Amplifying Mutual Causal Processes,”American Scientist, Vol. 51 (1963), pp. 164 79; also, see L. von Bertalanffy, “General System Theory,”General Systems, Vol. 1 (1956), pp. 1 10.
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• 17 For information on the multiple nuclei concept of urban growth, see C. D. Harris and E. L. Ullman, “The Nature of Cities,”Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 242 (November, 1945), pp. 7 17; E. L. Ullman, “The Nature of Cities Reconsidered,”Papers and Proceedings of the Regional Science Association, Vol. 9 (1962), pp. 7 23.
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• 18 J. Gottman, “Megalopolis, Or the Urbanization of the Northeastern Seaboard,”Economic Geography, Vol. 33 (1957), pp. 189 200.
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• 19 The skyscraper is an alternative choice in attaining more space while still retaining central access. The skyscraper, however, is a form of centralization which fosters greater interaction and additional demand for accessibility. Thus, this spatial adaptation also helps to perpetuate the trend towards greater centralization.
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• 20 Interesting statements on a concept of relative advantage similar to that proposed here are provided by Z. Griliches, “Hybrid Corn and the Economics of Innovation,”Science, Vol. 132 (July 29, 1960), pp. 275 80; and Hybrid Corn: An Exploration in the Economics of Technological Change,”Econometrica, Vol. 25 (1957), pp. 501 22.
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• 21 G. W. Hilton and J. F. Due, The Electric Interurban Railways in America (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1960).
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• 22 The number of automobiles in Michigan increased from 2,700 in 1905 to more than 60,000 by 1913. See Michigan State Highway Department, History of Michigan Highways and the Michigan State Highway Department (Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State Highway Department, 1965), pp. 6–7.
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• 23 Of the 68,000 miles of roads in Michigan in 1905, only 7,700 miles were graveled and only 245 miles were stone or macadam. See Michigan State Highway Department, op. cit., footnote 22, p. 6.
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• 24 Michigan State Highway Department, Highways Connecting Pertinent Cities with O'Hare Field (Chicago) or Metropolitan Airport (Detroit) (Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State Highway Department, 1963).
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• 25 For a good review and appraisal of the gravity model, see G. Olson, Distance and Human Interaction (Philadelphia: Regional Science Research Institute, 1965).
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• 26 The test of the significance of R values was based on the use of Student's t as suggested by M. J. Moroney, Facts From Figures (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1956), pp. 334–36. In this study, findings based on Spearman's rank correlation technique are to be regarded as tentative rather than conclusive.
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• 27 A. K. Philbrick, “Principles of Areal Functional Organization in Regional Human Geography,”Economic Geography, Vol. 33 (1957), pp.299 336.
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• 28 For an excellent review of studies on decision theory and their applicability in planning, see J. W. Dyckman, “Planning and Decision Theory,”Journal of the American Institute of Planners, Vol. 27 (1961), pp. 335 45.
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• 29 A brief review of dynamic programming is provided by R. Bellman, “Dynamic Programming,”Science, Vol. 153 (1 July, 1966), pp. 34 37.
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