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Annals of the Association of American Geographers Volume 60, 1970 - Issue 2
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General Articles

THE FULL-GLACIAL CLIMATE IN THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

ROBERT W. GALLOWAY Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Canberra, Australia
Pages 245-256 | Accepted 20 Jun 1969, Published online: 15 Mar 2010

  • 1 P. S. Martin, “Pollen Analysis and the Fullglacial Landscape,” in J. J. Hester (Ed.), Symposium on Paleoecology (Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press, Fort Burgwin Research Center Publication, 1964), pp. 66–75.
  • 2 Termed “congelifluctate” by K. Bryan“Cryopedology—the Study of Frozen Ground and Intensive Frost-action with Suggestions on Nomenclature,”American Journal of Science, Vol. 244 (1946), pp. 622 42.
  • 3 A. L. Washburn, “Reconnaissance Geology of Portions of Victoria Island and Adjacent Regions, Arctic Canada,”Memoirs of the American Geological Society, No. 22 (1947); H. Poser, “Die Periglazial-Erscheinungen in der Umgebung der Gletscher des Zemmgrundes (Zillertaler Alpen),”Göttinger Geographische Abhandlungen, Vol. 15 (1954), pp. 125 80.
  • 4 Deposits of this type have been described in the Great Smoky Mountains; see P. B. King, “Geology of the Central Great Smoky Mountains Tennessee,”United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 349-C (1964).
  • 5 For illustrated examples, see R. W. Galloway, “Periglacial Phenomena in Scotland,”Geografiska Annaler, Vol. 43 (1961), p. 351; and Late Quaternary Climates in Australia,”Journal of Geology, Vol. 73 (1965), pp. 603 18, Plate 1.
  • 6 L. Berry and B. P. Ruxton, “Mass Movement and Landform in New Zealand and Hong Kong,”Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand, Vol. 88 (1961), pp. 623 29; K. W. Butzer, “Climatic-Geomorphologic Interpretation of Pleistocene Sediments in the Eurafrican Subtropics,” in F. C. Howell and F. Bourliàre (Eds.), African Ecology and Human Evolution (London: Methuen & Co., 1963), pp. 1–27.
  • 7 Galloway, 1965, op. cit., footnote 5, p. 605.
  • 8 e.g., H. Wilhelmy, “Eiszeit und Eiszeitklima in den Feuchttropischen Anden,”Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen Ergänzungsheft, Nr. 262 (1957), p. 303; K. W. Butzer, “Quaternary Stratigraphy and Climate in the Near East,”Bonner Geographische Abhandlungen, Vol. 24 (1958), p. 51; J. L. Davis, “Tasmanian Landforms and Quaternary Climates,” in J. N. Jennings and J. A. Mabbutt (Eds.), Landform Studies from Australia and New Guinea (Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1967), pp. 1–25.
  • 9 R. Daubenmire, “Alpine Timberlines in the Americas and their Interpretation,”Butler University Botanical Studies, Vol. 11 (1954), pp. 119 36; P. Wardle“A Comparison of Alpine Timber Lines in New Zealand and North America,”New Zealand Journal of Botany, Vol. 3 (1965), pp. 113 35.
  • 10 A. B. Costin, B. G. Thom, D. J. Wimbush, and M. Stuiver, “Nonsorted Steps in the Mt. Kosciusko Area Australia,”Geological Society of America Bulletin, Vol. 78 (1967), pp. 979 92.
  • 11 Galloway, 1965, op. cit., footnote 5, pp. 605–06.
  • 12 V. C. Lamarche, “Rates of Slope Degradation as Determined from Botanical Evidence, White Mountains California,”United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 352-I (1968).
  • 13 R. Anderson, “Life Zones of North-eastern Arizona,”New Mexico Geological Society 9th Field Conference Guidebook (1958), pp. 199–201; W. C. Martin, “Some Aspects of the Natural History of the Capitan and Jicaralla Mountains, and Sierra Blanca Region of New Mexico,”New Mexico Geological Society 15th Field Conference Guidebook (1964), pp. 171–76.
  • 14 D. Brunnschweiler, “The Periglacial Realm in North America During the Wisconsin Glaciation,”Biuletyn Peryglacjalny, No. 11 (1962), pp. 15 27; J. W. Blagbrough and W. J. Breed“Protalus Ramparts on Navajo Mountain, Southern Utah,”American Journal of Science, Vol. 265 (1967), pp. 759 72.
  • 15 G. M. Richmond, “Glaciation of the Rocky Mountains,” in H. E. Wright and D. J. Frey (Eds.), Quaternary of the United States (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1965), pp. 217–30.
  • 16 L. B. Leopold, “Pleistocene Climate in New Mexico,”American Journal of Science, Vol. 249 (1951), pp. 152 68.
  • 17 M. A. Kohler, T. J. Nordenson, and D. R. Baker, “Evaporation Maps for the United States,”United States Weather Bureau Technical Paper, No. 37 (1966).
  • 18 R. E. Horton, “Water-losses at High Latitudes and High Elevations,”American Geophysical Union Transactions, Vol. 15 (1934), pp. 351 79; D. H. Miller, “Snow Cover and Climate in the Sierra Nevada,”University of California Publications in Geography, Vol. 11 (1955); G. P. Williams, “Evaporation from Water, Snow and Ice,”Proceedings Hydrology Symposium No. 2, Evaporation (Canada: Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Water Resources Branch, 1961), pp. 31–52.
  • 19 A. R. Konstantinov, Evaporation in Nature, translated by I. Schechtman (Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translations, 1966).
  • 20 W. B. Langbein, “Annual Run-off in the United States,”United States Geological Survey Circular 52 (1949); S. A. Schumm, “Quaternary Paleohydrology,” in Wright and Frey, op. cit., footnote 15, pp. 783–94; G. H. Dury, “Theoretical Implications of Underfit Streams,”United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 452-C (1965), p. C17.
  • 21 e.g., ten to fifteen percent of the inflow to Great Salt Lake is by seepage; E. L. Peck and E. A. Richardson, “Hydrology and Climatology of Great Salt Lake,”Guidebook to the Geology of Utah, No. 20 (Salt Lake City, Utah: Utah Geological Society, 1966), pp. 121–34.
  • 22 Leopold, op. cit., footnote 16; C. T. Snyder, G. Hardman, and F. F. Zdenek, “Pleistocene Lakes in the Great Basin,”United States Geological Survey Miscellaneous Geologic Investigations, Map I-416 (1964); L. A. Heindl, R. Y. Anderson, L. V. Davis, and J. H. Irwin, “South-western Arid Lands,”VIIth INQUA Congress Guidebook for Field Conference H, 1965 (Lincoln, Nebraska: Nebraska Academy of Sciences, 1965).
  • 23 Snyder et al, op. cit., footnote 22.
  • 24 R. B. Morrison, “Predecessors of Great Salt Lake,”Guidebook to the Geology of Utah, No. 20 (Salt Lake City, Utah: Utah Geological Society, 1966), pp. 77–104.
  • 25 Lake Bonneville was over 300 meters deep at its greatest extent; Morrison, op. cit., footnote 24, p. 84.
  • 26 Morrison, op. cit., footnote 24.
  • 27 C. T. Snyder and W. B. Langbein“The Pleistocene Lake in Spring Valley, Nevada, and its Climatic Implications,”Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 67 (1962), pp. 2385 94.
  • 28 Cited by E. Antevs, “Climate of New Mexico During the Last Glacial-pluvial,”Journal of Geology, Vol. 62 (1954), pp. 182 91; C. C. Reeves, “Pleistocene Climate of the Llano Estacado,”Journal of Geology, Vol. 73 (1965), pp. 181 89; Leopold, op. cit., footnote 16; E. Antevs, “Cenozoic Climates of the Great Basin,”Geologische Rundschau, Vol. 40 (1952), pp. 94 108; W. S. Broecker and P. C. Orr“Radiocarbon Chronology of Lake Lahontan and Lake Bonneville,”Geological Society of America Bulletin, Vol. 69 (1958), pp. 1009 32; Snyder and Langbein, op. cit., footnote 27; C. C. Reeves, “Pleistocene Climate of the Llano Estacado II,”Journal of Geology, Vol. 74 (1966), pp. 642 47.
  • 29 Antevs, 1954, op. cit., footnote 28.
  • 30 M. A. Melton, “The Geomorphic and Paleoclimatic Significance of Alluvial Deposits in Southern Arizona: A Reply,”Journal of Geology, Vol. 74 (1966), pp. 102 06; Wardle op. cit., footnote 9.
  • 31 R. F. Flint, Glacial and Pleistocene Geology (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1957), p. 309; K. Kaiser, “Probleme und Ergebnisse der Quartärforschung in den Rocky Mountains (i.w.S.) and angrenzenden Gebieten,”Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, Vol. 10 (1966), pp. 264 302.
  • 32 Melton, op. cit., footnote 30.
  • 33 Flint, op. cit., footnote 31.
  • 34 E. Dahl, “Present-day Distribution of Plants and Past Climates,” in Hester, op. cit., footnote 1, pp. 52–61; F. Wendorf, “An Interpretation of Late Pleistocene Environments of the Llano Estecado,”Paleoecology of the Llano Estecado (Santa Fe: Museum of New Mexico Press, Fort Burgwin Research Center Publication, 1961), pp. 115–33.
  • 35 P. S. Martin and P. J. Mehringer, “Pleistocene Pollen Analysis and Biogeography of the Southwest,” in Wright and Frey, op. cit., footnote 15, pp. 433–51; P. S. Martin, “Geochronology of Pluvial Lake Cochise, Southern Arizona II. Pollen Analysis of a 42 meter Core,”Ecology, Vol. 44 (1963), pp. 436 44.
  • 36 P. V. Wells and C. D. Jorgensen“Pleistocene Wood-rat Middens and Climatic Change in the Mohave Desert: a Record of Juniper Woodlands,”Science, Vol. 143 (1964), pp. 1171 74; P. V. Wells, “Late Pleistocene Vegetation and Degree of Pluvial Climatic Change in the Chihuahuan Desert,”Science, Vol. 153 (1966), pp. 970 75; P. V. Wells and R. Berger“Late Pleistocene History of Coniferous Woodland in the Mohave Desert,”Science, Vol. 155 (1967), pp. 1640 47.
  • 37 The locality is known today as the San Agustin Plains but the Pleistocene lake is called Lake San Augustin. These spellings are followed in the VIIIth INQUA Congress Guidebook for this area; Heindl, Anderson, Davis, and Irwin, op. cit., footnote 22; Martin and Mehringer, op. cit., footnote 35.
  • 38 G. A. Pearson, “Forest Types in the Southwest as Determined by Climate and Soil,”United States Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 247 (1931).
  • 39 M. B. Davis, “Phytogeography and Palynology of the Northeastern United States,” in Wright and Frey, op. cit., footnote 15, p. 385.
  • 40 Experimental Sites L-2 and F-11; C. G. Bates “Forest Types in the Central Rocky Mountains as Affected by Climate and Soil,”United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 1233 (1924).
  • 41 W. A. Watts and H. E. Wright“Late-Wisconsin Pollen and Seed Analysis from the Nebraska Sandhills,”Ecology, Vol. 47 (1966), pp. 202 10; H. Nienstadt, “Silvical Characteristics of White Spruce,”United States Forest Service, Lake States Forestry Experimental Station Paper 55 (1957); R. S. Sigafoos, “Vegetation of Northwestern North America, as an Aid in Interpretation of Geologic Data,”United States Geological Survey Bulletin 1061-E (1948), pp. 165–85; J. S. Rowe, “Forest Regions of Canada,”Canada Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Forestry Branch Bulletin 123 (1959).
  • 42 R. D. Wright and H. A. Mooney“Substrate-oriented Distribution of Bristlecone Pine in the White Mountains of California,”American Midland Naturalist, Vol. 73 (1965), pp. 257 84.
  • 43 F. Oldfield and J. Schoenwetter, “Late Quaternary Environment and Early Man on the Southern High Plains,”Antiquity, Vol. 38 (1964), pp. 226 29.
  • 44 C. Wahrhaftig, “Physiographic Divisions of Alaska,”United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 482 (1965); Watts and Wright, op. cit., footnote 41.
  • 45 H. Bobek, “Die Rolle der Eiszeit in Nordwestiran,”Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde, Vol. 25 (1937), pp. 130 83; R. W. Hey, “The Quaternary and Palaeolithic of Northern Libya,”Quaternaria, Vol. 6 (1962), pp. 435 49; J. Demangeot, “Géomorphologie des Abruzzes Adriatiques,”Centre de Recherches et Documentation Cartographique et Géographique Memoirs et Documents, Numero hors-Serie (Paris: Edition du C.N.R.S., 1965); T. van der Hammen, T. A. Wijmstra, and W. H. van der Molen, “Palynological Study of a Key Thick Peat Section in Greece, and the Würmglacial Vegetation in the Mediterranean Region,”Geologie en Mijnbouw, Vol. 44 (1965), pp. 37 39; B. Messerli, “Die Schneegrenzhöhen in den ariden Zonen und das Problem Glazialzeit-Pluvialzeit,”Mitteilungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Bern, Vol. 23 (1966), pp. 117 45; W. van Zeist, “Late Quaternary Vegetation History of Western Iran,”Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, Vol. 2 (1967), pp. 301 11; A. Cailleux and C. Rousset, “Presence du Réseaux Polygonaux de Fentes en Coin en Basse-Provence Occidentale et leur Signification Paléoclimatique,”Comptes Rendus de L'Academie des Sciences, Vol. 266, Ser. D (1968), pp. 669 71; D. B. Krinsley, “Geomorphology of Three Kavirs in Northern Iran,” in J. T. Neal (Ed.), Playa Surface Morphology (Bedford, Mass.: Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories, Environmental Research Papers, No. 283, 1968), pp. 105–30.

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